Scallops : biology, ecology and aquaculture

Author(s)

• Shumway, Sandra E.
• Parsons, G. Jay

Bibliographic Information

Scallops : biology, ecology and aquaculture

edited by Sandra E. Shumway, G. Jay Parsons

（Developments in aquaculture and fisheries science, 35）

Elsevier, 2006

2nd ed.

Note

Includes bibliographical references and index

Description and Table of Contents

Description

Scallops are among the better known shellfish and are widely distributed throughout the world. They are of great economic importance, support both commercial fisheries and mariculture efforts and occupy a unique niche in the marine environment. Contributions from world leaders in scallop research and culture cover all facets of scallop biology including anatomy, taxonomy, physiology, ecology, larval biology and neurobiology. Chapters are also devoted to diseases and parasites, genetics, population dynamics and the adductor muscle, with extensive reference lists provided for each chapter. Since the publication of the first edition of Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture in 1991, commercial interest in scallops has grown globally and this is reflected in the seventeen extensive chapters covering both fisheries and aquaculture for all species of scallops in all countries where they are fished or cultured. The Second Edition is the only comprehensive treatise on the biology of scallops and is the definitive reference source for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, mariculturists, managers and researchers. It is a valuable reference for anyone interested in staying abreast of the latest advances in scallops.

Table of Contents

• Table of Contents Dedication v Preface vii Preface from first edition ix List of contributors xi Chapter 1. New Phylogenies of the Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia): Reconciling Morphological and Molecular Approaches Thomas R. Waller 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Molecular genetic studies 1 1.1.2 Methods and materials 7 1.2 New observations 10 1.2.1 Subfamily Camptonectinae Habe, 1977 10 1.2.2 Subfamily Palliolinae Korobkov in Eberzin, 1960 10 1.2.2.1 Tribe Pseudentoliini, new tribe 12 1.2.2.2 Tribe Adamussiini Habe, 1977 13 1.2.2.3 Tribe Eburneopectinini, new tribe 14 1.2.2.4 Tribe Serripectinini, new tribe 15 1.2.2.5 Tribe Palliolini Korobkov in Eberzin, 1960 17 1.2.2.6 Tribe Mesopeplini, new tribe 20 1.2.3 Origins of the Decatopecten and Pecten Groups 22 1.2.4 Eastern Atlantic Pecten 28 1.3 Conclusions 30 Acknowledgments 32 References 32 Appendix 43 Chapter 2. Development, Physiology, Behaviour and Ecology of Scallop Larvae Simon M. Cragg 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Scallop life history characteristics 45 2.3 Larval development 55 2.3.1 Embryogenesis 55 2.3.2 Development of the larval shell 56 2.3.3 Organogenesis 59 2.3.3.1 Development of ciliation, the prototroch and the velum 59 2.3.3.2 Larval mantle 64 2.3.3.3 Musculature 64 2.3.3.4 Digestive tract 68 2.3.3.5 Sense organs 68 2.3.3.6 Apical organ 68 2.3.3.7 Statocysts 73 2.3.3.8 Eye spots 73 2.3.3.9 Mantle ciliation 74 2.3.3.10 Foot 77 2.3.3.11 Nervous system 78 2.3.3.12 Other organs 79 2.3.4 Metamorphosis 79 2.4 Comparative anatomy 81 2.5 Functional morphology 84 2.5.1 Locomotion 84 2.5.2 Feeding 85 2.5.3 Respiration 85 2.5.4 Sensory reception 86 2.6 Physiology and effects of environmental variables 87 2.6.1 Energy reserves and feeding 87 2.6.2 Respiration 88 2.6.3 Growth 89 2.6.4 Biochemical events during metamorphosis 90 2.7 Behaviour and larval distribution 90 2.7.1 Characteristics of locomotion during larval development 90 2.7.2 Responses to stimuli 91 2.7.3 Distribution of larvae 94 2.7.4 Development and the larval environment 98 2.7.5 Tolerance of environmental variables 99 2.8 Rearing methods 101 2.8.1 Spawning and manipulation of zygotes 101 2.8.2 Feeding 102 2.8.3 Control of disease in cultures 103 2.8.4 Collection of spat from wild stocks 104 References 105 Chapter 3. Structure and Function in Scallops Peter G. Beninger and Marcel Le Pennec 3.1 Introduction 123 3.1.1 An overview of the scallop body 123 3.2 The mantle and its derivatives 126 3.2.1 Gross functional anatomy 127 3.2.2 Microanatomy and functions 130 3.3 Pallial organs and particle processing 132 3.3.1 Gills 132 3.3.1.1 Gill axis and arch 135 3.3.1.2 Principal filaments and dorsal expansion 135 3.3.1.3 Ordinary filament 137 3.3.1.4 Haemolymph circulation in the gill 141 3.3.1.5 Particle processing on the gill 141 3.3.1.6 Particle selection at the gill 141 3.3.1.7 Particle retention lower size limit 143 3.3.1.8 Ingestion volume regulation on the gill 143 3.3.2 Labial palps and lips 144 3.3.2.1 Labial palps 144 3.3.2.2 Particle processing on the labial palps 144 3.3.2.3 Lips 147 3.4 Digestive system and digestion 150 3.4.1 Mouth and oesophagus 150 3.4.2 Stomach, crystalline style and gastric shield 150 3.4.3 The digestive gland 154 3.4.4 Intestine, rectum and anus 157 3.4.5 Digestive sites and postingestive selection 159 3.5 Cardio-Vascular system 159 3.5.1 General circulation 160 3.5.1.1 The arterial system 160 3.5.1.1.1 Anterior aorta 160 3.5.1.1.2 Posterior aorta 160 3.5.1.2 The venous system 162 3.5.2 The heart 162 3.5.2.1 The ventricle 162 3.5.2.2 The auricles and their excretory structures 163 3.5.2.3 Structure and ultrastructure of heart cells 163 3.5.2.4 Contraction 165 3.5.2.4.1 Refilling 165 3.5.2.4.2 Coordination of alternate AV beat 166 3.5.2.4.3 Pacemaker mechanism 166 3.5.2.4.4 Regulation of pacemaker 167 3.5.3 Haemolymph 167 3.5.3.1 Plasma 168 3.5.3.2 Haemocytes 168 3.5.3.2.1 Haemocyte types 169 3.5.3.2.2 Functions of haemocytes 169 3.6 Excretory system 170 3.6.1 Pericardial (auricular) glands 170 3.6.2 Kidney 172 3.6.3 Functions of the kidney and pericardial glands 173 3.7 Reproductive system 173 3.7.1 Sexuality: Gonochory, hermaphroditism and their variants 173 3.7.2 Origin and formation of the gonad 176 3.7.3 Anatomy, histology and ultrastructure of the adult gonad 177 3.7.3.1 Outer epithelium 177 3.7.3.2 Perigonadal connective tissue 179 3.7.3.3 Inter-acinal connective tissue 179 3.7.3.4 Haemolymph sinuses 179 3.7.3.5 Acini 180 3.7.3.6 Evacuating ducts 180 3.7.4 Gametogenesis 180 3.7.4.1 Oogenesis 180 3.7.4.1.1 Premeiotic stage 180 3.7.4.1.2 Previtellogenic stage 181 3.7.4.1.3 Vitellogenesis and metabolite transport to the oocyte 181 3.7.5 Oocyte atresia 185 3.7.6 Spermatogenesis, spermatozoon ultrastructure and taxonomy 188 3.7.7 Fertilisation 190 3.8 Nervous and sensory systems 191 3.8.1 General organisation of the nervous system and functional anatomy of principal ganglia 191 3.8.1.1 Cerebral and pedal ganglia 191 3.8.1.2 The parietovisceral ganglion and its nerves 191 3.8.1.3 Histology and neurosecretions of the ganglia 196 3.8.1.4 The circumpallial nerve 198 3.8.2 Sensory structures 198 3.8.2.1 Visual system 198 3.8.2.2 Epithelial sensory cells and tentacles 198 3.8.2.3 Abdominal sense organ 199 3.8.2.4 Osphradia 201 3.8.2.5 Statoreceptors 204 3.8.3 Neurotransmitters and neurohormones 204 3.9 Foot-byssal complex 205 3.9.1 External morphology and development of the foot-byssal complex 207 3.9.2 Anatomy and histology of the foot-byssal gland complex 208 3.9.2.1 The protein gland 208 3.9.2.2 The enzyme gland 208 3.9.2.3 The byssus 210 3.9.3 Functioning of the foot-byssal complex 210 Acknowledgments 210 References 211 Chapter 4. Scallop Adductor Muscles: Structure and Function Peter D. Chantler 4.1 Introduction 229 4.2 Structure of the striated adductor muscle 231 4.2.1 Fibre microanatomy 231 4.2.2 Actin and thin filament structure 233 4.2.3 Thick filament structure 240 4.3 Structure of the smooth adductor muscle 243 4.3.1 Fibre microanatomy 243 4.3.2 Thin filament structure 245 4.3.3 The structure of paramyosin-rich thick filaments 247 4.4 Myosin 253 4.5 Function of the striated adductor 271 4.5.1 Mechanics 271 4.5.2 The interaction of myosin with actin 272 4.5.3 The crossbridge cycle 277 4.5.4 Myosin-linked regulation 282 4.6 Function of the smooth adductor 289 4.6.1 Physiology 289 4.6.2 Catch mechanism 292 4.7 Achievements and goals 296 Acknowledgments 298 References 298 Chapter 5. Neurobiology and Behaviour of the Scallop Lon A. Wilkens 5.1 Introduction 317 5.2 The visual system 317 5.2.1 Functional anatomy of the eyes 317 5.2.2 Retinal physiology 322 5.2.3 Receptor potential biophysics 324 5.2.4 Anatomy and physiology of vision in the central nervous system 328 5.2.5 Visual behaviours 332 5.3 The locomotory system 335 5.3.1 Escape responses and swimming 335 5.3.2 Sensory and motor functions of the mantle 341 5.3.3 Innervation and neuromuscular physiology of the adductor muscle 345 5.3.4 Coordination of locomotory behaviour by the central nervous system 348 Acknowledgments 352 References 352 Chapter 6. Reproductive Physiology Bruce J. Barber and Norman J. Blake 6.1 Introduction 357 6.2 Gametogenic cycles 358 6.2.1 Definition 358 6.2.2 Means of assessment 358 6.2.2.1 Visual observation 360 6.2.2.2 Gonad mass and index 360 6.2.2.3 Histology 367 6.2.2.4 Abundance of larvae and spat 369 6.2.3 Variations in gametogenic cycles 370 6.2.3.1 Intra-specific variations 370 6.2.3.2 Inter-specific variations 375 6.3 Regulation of gametogenic cycles 375 6.3.1 Gametogenesis and fecundity 376 6.3.1.1 Exogenous regulation 376 6.3.1.2 Endogenous regulation 381 6.3.2 Spawning and spawning synchrony 385 6.3.2.1 Exogenous regulation 385 6.3.2.2 Endogenous regulation 389 6.4 Energy metabolism 390 6.4.1 Tissue weights and indices 391 6.4.2 Tissue biochemical composition 392 6.4.3 Physiological indices 395 6.4.4 Radiotracer experiments 398 6.4.5 Ultrastructure and histochemistry 398 6.4.6 Mechanisms 400 6.5 Applications to aquaculture 401 6.5.1 Broodstock conditioning 401 6.5.2 Spawning 403 6.5.3 Larval growth and survival 403 6.6 Summary 404 6.6.1 Gametogenic cycles 404 6.6.2 Regulation of gametogenesis 404 6.6.3 Energy metabolism 405 6.6.4 Applications to aquaculture 406 References 406 Chapter 7. Physiology: Energy Acquisition and Utilisation Bruce A. MacDonald, V. Monica Bricelj and Sandra E. Shumway 7.1 Introduction 417 7.2 Energy acquisition 417 7.2.1 Food sources 417 7.2.2 Feeding currents and mechanisms of particle capture 420 7.2.3 Particle retention efficiency 421 7.2.4 Feeding rates 424 7.2.5 Clearance rate in relation to food concentration 427 7.2.6 Influence of temperature on feeding rates 430 7.2.7 Pseudofeces production, pre- and post-ingestive particle selection 432 7.2.8 Absorption efficiency 436 7.2.9 Effects of suspended sediments on feeding and growth 439 7.2.10 Effects of flow on feeding and growth 445 7.2.11 Effects of harmful and toxic algae 447 7.3 Energy utilisation: Metabolic expenditure 453 7.3.1 Metabolic rate and oxygen availability 455 7.3.2 Metabolic cost of reproduction 458 7.3.3 Metabolic rate in relation to temperature and latitude 460 7.3.4 Metabolic rate in relation to activity levels 461 7.3.5 Anaerobic metabolism 463 7.4 Energy utilisation 467 7.4.1 Excretion and byssus secretion 467 7.4.2 Growth 468 References 474 Chapter 8. Physiological Integrations and Energy Partitioning Raymond J. Thompson and Bruce A. MacDonald 8.1 Introduction 493 8.2 Energy balance, physiological integrations and the partitioning of energy between growth and reproduction 493 8.2.1 Energy budgets 493 8.2.2 Scope for growth 494 8.2.3 Growth efficiency and turnover ratio 494 8.2.4 Growth of shell and somatic tissue 495 8.2.5 Reproductive effort 496 8.3 Changes related to age of individuals 498 8.3.1 Scope for growth 498 8.3.2 Growth efficiency and turnover ratio 498 8.3.3 Somatic growth and maximum size 499 8.3.4 Somatic production and reproductive output 500 8.3.5 Reproductive effort 502 8.4 Environmental influence on production 504 8.4.1 Scope for growth and growth efficiency 504 8.4.2 Growth of shell and somatic tissue 506 8.4.3 Reproductive effort 509 8.5 Reproductive value and cost 511 8.5.1 Residual reproductive value 511 8.5.2 Reproductive cost 512 8.6 Population production 514 Acknowledgments 516 References 516 Chapter 9. Nutrition in Pectinids Ana Farias and Iker Uriarte 9.1 Introduction 521 9.2 Pectinid feeding 521 9.3 Nutritional requirements during reproductive conditioning 528 9.4 Nutritional requirements of the larvae 529 9.5 Post-metamorphic nutritional requirements 533 9.6 Summary 536 References 536 Chapter 10. Genetics Andy Beaumont 10.1 Introduction 543 10.2 Chromosomal genetics and ploidy manipulation 544 10.2.1 Chromosome numbers and karyotypes 544 10.2.2 Ploidy manipulation 548 10.3 Genetic markers and population genetics 550 10.3.1 Genetic markers 550 10.3.1.1 Allozymes 551 10.3.1.2 DNA methods 551 10.3.1.3 DNA based markers 552 10.3.1.3.1 Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) 552 10.3.1.3.2 Random amplified polymorhic DNA (RAPDs) 552 10.3.1.3.3 Microsatellites 553 10.3.1.3.4 Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) 553 10.3.1.4 Mitochondrial DNA in scallops 554 10.3.1.5 Types of data produced by different markers 555 10.3.1.6 Analysis of data 555 10.3.2 Overall genetic variation 557 10.3.3 Genetic differentiation of populations 559 10.3.3.1 Placopecten magellanicus 559 10.3.3.2 Patinopecten (= Mizuhopecten) yessoensis 561 10.3.3.3 Pecten maximus 562 10.3.3.4 Aequipecten opercularis 563 10.3.3.5 Chlamys islandica 564 10.3.3.6 Chlamys farreri 565 10.3.3.7 Mimachlamys varia 565 10.3.3.8 Euvola (Pecten) ziczac 565 10.3.3.9 Argopecten gibbus 565 10.3.3.10 The Argopecten irradians species complex 566 10.3.4 Genetic differences at species level and above 567 10.3.5 Heterozygote deficiency 568 10.3.6 Heterozygosity and growth 571 10.4 Quantitative genetics 575 10.4.1 Heritability and artificial selection 575 10.4.2 Inbreeding and hybridisation 577 10.5 Genome mapping and gene sequences 579 10.6 Conclusion 580 Acknowledgments 581 References 581 Chapter 11. Diseases and Parasites of Scallops Sharon E. McGladdery, Susan M. Bower and Rodman G. Getchell 11.1 Introduction 595 11.2 Microbial diseases 595 11.2.1 Viruses 595 11.2.2 Prokaryota 605 11.2.2.1 Vibrionaceae 605 11.2.2.2 Intracellular prokaryotes (Rickettsiales
• Chlamydiales and Mycoplasma) 607 11.2.2.3 Other bacterial pathogens of scallops 610 11.2.2.4 Bacterial management under hatchery conditions 611 11.3 Mycota 612 11.4 Protista 614 11.4.1 Sarcomastigophorea (Amoebae and Flagellates) 614 11.4.2 Labyrinthomorpha (Thraustochytrids and Labythinuloids) 615 11.4.3 Apicomplexa 615 11.4.3.1 Perkinsorida 615 11.4.3.2 Eucoccidiia 617 11.4.3.3 Eugregarinida 618 11.4.4 Microspora 619 11.4.5 Ascetospora 620 11.4.5.1 Marteiliida 621 11.4.5.2 Balanosporida 621 11.4.6 Ciliates 621 11.5 Platyhelminths 623 11.5.1 Trematodes 623 11.5.2 Cestodes 626 11.5.3 Turbellaria 626 11.5.4 Nematodes 628 11.6 Polychaetes 629 11.7 Crustacea 632 11.7.1 Pinnotheriidae 632 11.7.2 Copepodidae 632 11.8 Gastropods 633 11.9 Algae 635 11.10 Foraminiferans 636 11.11 Porifera 636 11.12 Cnidaria 637 11.13 Non-Infectious diseases 638 11.14 Summary 638 Acknowledgments 639 References 639 Chapter 12. Scallop Ecology: Distributions and Behaviour Andrew R. Brand 12.1 Introduction 651 12.2 Geographical distribution 653 12.2.1 Geographical distribution of commercially important species 653 12.2.1.1 North Atlantic species 653 12.2.1.1.1 Pecten maximus and P. jacobaeus 653 12.2.1.1.2 Aequipecten opercularis 655 12.2.1.1.3 Mimachlamys varia 655 12.2.1.1.4 Placopecten magellanicus 655 12.2.1.1.5 Argopecten irradians 657 12.2.1.1.6 Argopecten gibbus 659 12.2.1.2 Sub-arctic species 659 12.2.1.2.1 Chlamys islandica 659 12.2.1.3 North Pacific species 661 12.2.1.3.1 Patinopecten caurinus 661 12.2.1.3.2 Mizuhopecten yessoensis 661 12.2.1.3.3 Pecten albicans, Mimachlamys nobilis and Chlamys farreri 662 12.2.1.4 Southern hemisphere species 662 12.2.1.4.1 Pecten fumatus 662 12.2.1.4.2 Mimachlamys asperrima and Equichlamys bifrons 663 12.2.1.4.3 Amusium balloti and A. pleuronectes 664 12.2.1.4.4 Pecten novaezelandiae 664 12.2.1.4.5 Argopecten purpuratus and A. ventricosus 665 12.2.1.4.6 Aequipecten tehuelchus 665 12.2.1.4.7 Zygochlamys patagonica 665 12.2.2 Factors affecting geographical distribution 666 12.3 Local distribution 669 12.3.1 Spatial distribution 669 12.3.2 Year-class separation 676 12.3.3 Factors affecting local distribution 677 12.3.3.1 Depth 678 12.3.3.2 Substrate type 678 12.3.3.3 Currents 679 12.3.3.4 Turbidity 680 12.3.3.5 Salinity 681 12.3.3.6 Competitors and predators 684 12.4 Scallop behaviour - aspects affecting distribution 689 12.4.1 Byssus attachment 689 12.4.2 Recessing 692 12.4.3 Orientation 695 12.4.4 Swimming 698 12.4.5 Reactions to predators 707 12.4.6 Dispersal and migrations 709 12.5 Further study 712 Acknowledgments 713 References 713 Chapter 13. Scallops and Marine Contaminants Peter J. Cranford 13.1 Introduction 745 13.2 Trace metals 746 13.3 Trace organics 748 13.4 Offshore oil and gas operations 750 13.5 Scallops as sentinel organisms 754 Acknowledgments 759 References 759 Chapter 14. Dynamics, Assessment and Management of Exploited Natural Populations J.M. (Lobo) Orensanz, Ana M. Parma, Teresa Turk and Juan Valero 14.1 Introduction 765 14.2 Spatial scales 765 14.3 Population structure and dynamics 769 14.3.1 Aggregate stocks 769 14.3.1.1 Patterns of fluctuation 769 14.3.1.2 Climatic forcing 771 14.3.1.3 Correlation between consecutive life-history stages 773 14.3.1.4 The relation between aggregate stock and settlement/ recruitment 774 14.3.2 Macroscale 777 14.3.2.1 Patterns of connectivity: metapopulation structure 777 14.3.2.2 Metapopulation structure and geographic genetic differentiation 780 14.3.2.3 Larval retention/dispersal: mechanisms and oceanographic scenarios 782 14.3.2.4 Metapopulation models 784 14.3.3 Mesoscale 785 14.3.3.1 Persistence, extinction and resurgence of subpopulations 785 14.3.3.2 Relation between abundance and area occupied by a subpopulation 785 14.3.4 Microscale 786 14.3.4.1 Density, neighbourhoods and concentration 786 14.3.4.2 Concentration profiles 788 14.3.4.3 Density- vs. concentration-dependence
• compensation vs. depensation 789 14.4 The fishing process 795 14.4.1 Types of fishing gear used in scallop fisheries 796 14.4.2 Effort and fishing mortality 797 14.4.2.1 Effort data 797 14.4.2.2 Effort units 797 14.4.2.3 Components of fishing mortality under homogeneity assumptions 798 14.4.2.4 Relative fishing power and standardisation of effort 799 14.4.3 Spatial patterns of effort allocation 799 14.4.4 The depletion process 803 14.4.5 Vulnerability and selectivity 805 14.4.6 Gear performance 806 14.4.7 Incidental fishing mortality and sub-lethal damage 808 14.5 Assessment 811 14.5.1 Macroscale 811 14.5.2 Mesoscale 812 14.5.2.1 Estimation of aggregated abundance: methods based on sampling 812 14.5.2.2 Mapping 815 14.5.2.3 Methods based on modelling the depletion process 816 14.5.3 Microscale 819 14.5.3.1 Small-scale spatial data 819 14.5.3.2 Spatial pattern 820 14.5.3.3 Scaling problems 821 14.6 Management 823 14.6.1 Types of scallop fisheries 823 14.6.2 Overfishing 824 14.6.2.1 Growth overfishing: yield-per-recruit (Y/R) analysis 824 14.6.2.2 Recruitment overfishing 826 14.6.2.3 A special case: recruitment fisheries 829 14.6.3 Sustainability 830 14.6.3.1 The precautionary approach to fisheries management (PAFM) and risk assessment (RA) 830 14.6.3.2 Marine protected areas (MPAs) 832 14.6.3.3 Ecosystem management concerns 834 14.6.3.4 Strategic structures: use and property rights 835 14.6.3.5 Diversification of the resource-base 837 14.6.4 Tactics 838 14.6.4.1 Size limits 838 14.6.4.2 Quota regulations 840 14.6.4.3 Escapement regulations 840 14.6.4.4 Direct effort regulations 840 14.6.4.5 Rotation 841 14.6.4.6 Direct interventions to enhance productivity 842 14.6.4.7 Experimental management 844 Acknowledgments 844 References 844 Endnotes 867 Chapter 15. Fisheries Sea Scallop, Placopecten magellanicus K.S. Naidu and G. Robert 15.1 Introduction 869 15.2 Distribution 871 15.3 History of fishery 874 15.4 Population biology 878 15.5 Growth and yield per recruit 880 15.6 Gear and boats 883 15.7 Exploitation and resource management 886 15.8 Outlook 895 References 897 Chapter 16. Sea Scallop Aquaculture in the Northwest Atlantic G. Jay Parsons and Shawn M. C. Robinson 16.1 Introduction 907 16.2 History of sea scallop culture 908 16.3 Hatchery spat production 909 16.3.1 Broodstock conditioning 909 16.3.2 Spawning methods 910 16.3.3 Egg and larval development 910 16.3.4 Settlement and metamorphosis 911 16.3.5 Spat husbandry 911 16.4 Wild spat collection 912 16.4.1 Spat collection techniques 912 16.4.2 Settlement intensity 913 16.4.3 Maximising spat collection 914 16.4.4 Spat growth 916 16.4.5 Spat sorting 916 16.5 Intermediate culture 916 16.5.1 Growth 917 16.5.2 Stocking density 917 16.5.3 Depth 919 16.5.4 Season 919 16.5.5 Location 919 16.5.6 Survival 920 16.5.7 Gear selection 920 16.5.8 Strategies for intermediate culture 921 16.6 Final grow-out 922 16.6.1 Suspension culture 922 16.6.2 Bottom culture 922 16.6.3 Growth 923 16.7 Scheduling and strategies 924 16.8 Site selection 924 16.8.1 Environmental criteria 925 16.8.1.1 Temperature and salinity regime 925 16.8.1.2 Ice coverage 925 16.8.1.3 Wind 925 16.8.1.4 Bottom type 925 16.8.1.5 Turbidity 926 16.8.2 Biological constraints 926 16.8.2.1 Predators 926 16.8.2.2 Fouling organisms 926 16.8.2.3 Phycotoxins 926 16.8.2.4 Diseases and parasites 927 16.9 Products and marketing 928 16.10 Economics 928 16.11 Social issues 929 16.12 Future prospects 930 Acknowledgments 930 References 930 Chapter 17. Bay Scallop and Calico Scallop Fisheries, Culture and Enhancement in Eastern North America Norman J. Blake and Sandra E. Shumway 17.1 Introduction 945 17.2 Fisheries 945 17.2.1 Bay scallop, Argopecten irradians 945 17.2.1.1 Distribution 945 17.2.1.2 Biology 948 17.2.1.3 Fishery 950 17.2.2 Calico scallop, Argopecten gibbus 952 17.2.2.1 Distribution 952 17.2.2.2 Biology 953 17.2.2.3 Fishery 955 17.3 Aquaculture and enhancement 958 17.4 Future 961 References 961 Chapter 18. Scallops of the West Coast of North America Raymond B. Lauzier and Neil F. Bourne 18.1 Introduction 965 18.2 Fisheries 967 18.2.1 Weathervane scallop 967 18.2.1.1 Biology 967 18.2.1.2 Fishery 971 18.2.1.3 Gear 973 18.2.1.4 Management 973 18.2.2 Rock scallop 973 18.2.2.1 Biology 974 18.2.2.2 Fishery 975 18.2.3 Pink and spiny scallops 975 18.2.3.1 Biology 975 18.2.3.2 Fisheries 977 18.2.3.3 Management 979 18.3 Aquaculture 979 18.3.1 Pink and spiny scallops 980 18.3.2 Weathervane scallop 980 18.3.3 Rock scallops 981 18.3.4 Japanese weathervane scallop 982 18.3.5 Pacific calico scallop 983 18.4 Future 983 Acknowledgments 984 References 984 Chapter 19. The European Scallop Fisheries for Pecten maximus, Aequipecten opercularis and Mimachlamys varia Andrew R. Brand 19.1 Introduction 991 19.2 Biology and ecology 993 19.2.1 The great scallop, Pecten maximus (L.) 993 19.2.2 The queen scallop, Aequipecten opercularis (L.) 1006 19.2.3 The black or variegated scallop, Mimachlamys varia (L.) 1011 19.3 Fisheries 1014 19.3.1 Isle of Man 1017 19.3.2 Scotland 1023 19.3.3 England and Wales 1025 19.3.4 Northern Ireland 1027 19.3.5 Republic of Ireland 1027 19.3.6 France 1029 19.3.7 Spain 1031 19.4 The future 1031 Acknowledgments 1035 References 1035 Chapter 20. European Aquaculture Mark Norman, Guillermo Roman and Oivind Strand 20.1 Introduction 1059 20.2 Pecten maximus 1060 20.3 Aequipecten opercularis 1062 20.4 Chlamys varia 1063 20.5 Summary 1063 References 1063 Chapter 21. Scandinavia Oivind Strand and G. Jay Parsons 21.1 Introduction 1067 21.2 Chlamys islandica 1067 21.2.1 Biology 1067 21.2.2 Fishery 1073 21.2.3 Aquaculture 1076 21.3 Pecten maximus 1077 21.3.1 Biology 1077 21.3.2 Fishery 1078 21.3.3 Aquaculture 1079 21.4 Aequipecten opercularis 1085 Acknowledgments 1086 References 1086 Chapter 22. Japan Yoshinobu Kosaka and Hiroshi Ito 22.1 Introduction 1093 22.2 Patinopecten (Mizuhopecten) yessoensis 1099 22.2.1 Biology 1099 22.2.2 Fishery 1104 22.2.3 Culture 1111 22.2.4 Seed production 1111 22.2.5 Spat collection 1111 22.2.6 Intermediate culture 1116 22.2.7 Hanging culture 1116 22.2.8 Fouling 1118 22.2.9 Sowing culture 1120 22.2.10 Enemy clearance 1120 22.2.11 Seed sowing 1120 22.2.12 Care 1121 22.2.13 Recapture 1121 22.2.14 Value 1124 22.2.15 Processing 1127 22.2.16 Occurrence of shellfish poisoning 1130 22.3 Future 1130 22.3.1 Technology 1130 22.3.2 Control of culture 1133 22.3.3 Cost-reduction 1133 22.3.4 Concept 1133 22.4 Pecten albicans 1134 22.4.1 Biology 1134 22.4.2 Fishery 1134 22.4.3 Culture 1135 22.5 Chlamys (Mimachlamys) nobilis 1135 22.5.1 Biology 1135 22.5.2 Culture 1135 Acknowledgments 1136 References 1136 Chapter 23. Scallop Culture in China Ximing Guo and Yousheng Luo 23.1 Introduction 1141 23.2 Zhikong scallop 1146 23.2.1 Shell morphology 1146 23.2.2 Distribution 1146 23.2.3 Growth 1147 23.2.4 Reproduction 1149 23.3 Other scallop species 1151 23.3.1 Huagui scallop 1151 23.3.2 Non-native species 1152 23.4 Fishery 1153 23.5 Aquaculture 1154 23.5.1 Species and history 1154 23.5.2 Collection of natural seed for Zhikong scallop 1155 23.5.3 Hatchery production of bay scallop 1155 23.5.4 Grow-out 1158 23.6 Harvest, processing and marketing 1160 Acknowledgments 1160 References 1161 Chapter 24. Scallops Fisheries and Aquaculture of Northwestern Pacific, Russian Federation Victor V. Ivin, Vasily Z. Kalashnikov, Sergey I. Maslennikov and Vitaly G. Tarasov 24.1 Introduction 1163 24.2 Taxonomic status 1163 24.3 Biology and ecology 1164 24.3.1 Chlamys albida 1164 24.3.2 Chlamys asiatica 1166 24.3.3 Chlamys behringiana 1167 24.3.4 Chlamys chosenica 1168 24.3.5 Chlamys farreri 1170 24.3.6 Chlamys swifti 1172 24.3.7 Delectopecten randolphi 1174 24.3.8 Mizuhopecten yessoensis 1174 24.3.8.1 Total populations and biomass 1175 24.3.8.2 Distribution in Primorye 1176 24.3.8.3 Distribution over depths 1176 24.3.8.4 Age structure of scallop settlements 1176 24.3.8.5 Scallop growth 1177 24.3.8.6 Sex structure of settlements 1178 24.3.8.7 Replenishment 1181 24.3.8.8 Spawning 1181 24.3.8.9 Larvae morphology 1182 24.3.8.10 Development in plankton 1182 24.3.8.11 Migration behaviour 1184 24.3.8.12 Risk factors 1184 24.3.8.12.1 Abiotic factors 1184 24.3.8.12.2 Storms 1184 24.3.8.12.3 Predators 1185 24.3.8.12.4 Parasites 1187 24.3.8.12.5 Bacterial contamination 1189 24.3.8.12.6 Epibionts 1189 24.4 Fishing and aquaculture 1189 24.4.1 Fishing 1189 24.4.1.1 History 1189 24.4.1.2 Fishing gear 1191 24.4.1.3 Yesso scallop landings 1191 24.4.1.3.1 Primorsky territory 1191 24.4.1.3.2 Sakhalin-Kurile region 1192 24.4.1.4 Yesso scallop commercial stock 1192 24.4.1.4.1 Primorsky territory 1192 24.4.1.4.2 Sakhalin-Kurile region 1192 24.4.1.4.2.1 Aniva Bay 1194 24.4.1.4.2.2 Terpenie Bay 1194 24.4.1.4.2.3 Kuriles 1194 24.4.1.5 Commercial Chlamys scallops 1194 24.4.1.5.1 Primorye 1194 24.4.1.5.2 Kurile Islands 1195 24.4.1.5.3 In Bering Sea 1196 24.4.1.6 Other Chlamys species 1196 24.4.1.6.1 Chlamys farreri 1196 24.4.1.6.2 Chlamys swifti 1196 24.4.2 Aquaculture 1196 24.4.2.1 History 1196 24.4.2.2 Present situation 1197 24.4.2.3 Marketing 1198 24.4.2.4 The culture methods 1198 24.4.2.4.1 Spat collection 1198 24.4.2.4.2 Intermediate culture 1199 24.4.2.4.3 Transport of scallop seed 1199 24.4.2.4.4 Sowing or on-bottom culture 1200 24.4.2.4.5 Hanging or off-bottom culture 1201 24.4.2.4.6 Obstacles to mariculture development 1201 24.4.2.4.7 Ecological constraints associated with cultivation 1202 24.4.2.4.7.1 Predation 1202 24.4.2.4.7.2 Epibionts 1202 24.4.2.4.7.3 Biofouling of cultivation structures 1203 24.4.2.4.8 Effect of scallop mariculture on coastal ecosystems 1204 24.4.2.5 Future prospects 1211 Acknowledgments 1213 References 1213 Chapter 25. Scallop Aquaculture and Fisheries in Brazil Guilherme S. Rupp and G. Jay Parsons 25.1 Introduction 1225 25.2 Nodipecten nodosus - biology, aquaculture and fisheries 1227 25.2.1 Taxonomy and distribution 1227 25.2.2 Ecology 1228 25.2.3 Reproduction 1231 25.2.4 Aquaculture 1232 25.2.4.1 Status 1232 25.2.4.2 Culture technology 1233 25.2.4.2.1 Wild seed collection 1233 25.2.4.2.2 Hatchery production 1234 25.2.4.2.3 Growout 1236 25.2.4.2.4 Constraints 1239 25.2.5 Fisheries and marketing 1239 25.2.6 Future prospects 1240 25.3 Euvola (Pecten) ziczac - biology, aquaculture and fisheries 1240 25.3.1 Taxonomy and distribution 1240 25.3.2 Ecology 1241 25.3.3 Reproduction 1241 25.3.4 Aquaculture 1242 25.3.4.1 Status 1242 25.3.4.2.Culture technology 1242 25.3.4.2.1 Wild seed collection 1242 25.3.4.2.2 Hatchery production 1242 25.3.4.2.3 Growout 1243 25.3.4.2.4 Constraints 1243 25.3.5 Fisheries 1243 25.3.6 Future prospects 1244 Acknowledgments 1244 References 1245 Chapter 26. Argentina Nestor F. Ciocco, Mario L. Lasta, Maite Narvarte, Claudia Bremec, Eugenia Bogazzi, Juan Valero and J.M. (Lobo) Orensanz 26.1 Introduction 1251 26.2 The Tehuelche scallop, Aequipecten tehuelchus 1251 26.2.1 Biology 1251 26.2.2 Population dynamics 1257 26.2.3 Fisheries 1258 26.2.3.1 The inshore dredge fishery of San Matias Gulf 1258 26.2.3.2 The commercial diving fishery of San Jose Gulf 1261 26.2.4 Aquaculture 1263 26.2.4.1 Spat collection 1263 26.2.4.1.1 Vertical distribution of settlement 1263 26.2.4.1.2 Temporal variation in settlement 1263 26.2.4.1.3 Type of collector 1263 26.2.4.1.4 Location 1265 26.2.4.1.5 Influence of depth, type of collector and location on the average size of the 'seed' 1265 26.2.4.2 Growth in suspended structures of spat obtained from collectors 1266 26.2.4.3 Larval culture in the laboratory 1268 26.2.4.4 Prospects and problems 1268 26.3 The Patagonian scallop, Zygochlamys patagonica 1269 26.3.1 Biology and ecology 1269 26.3.2 Population dynamics and stock assessment 1273 26.3.3 The fishery 1275 26.3.3.1 Exploratory surveys and experimental fishing programs 1275 26.3.3.2 Management 1276 26.3.3.3 Development of the fishery 1277 26.3.3.4 Observers program 1280 26.3.3.5 Ecological effects of fishing 1281 26.3.3.6 Marketing 1283 Acknowledgments 1283 References 1283 Chapter 27. Scallop Fishery and Aquaculture in Chile Elisabeth von Brand, German E. Merino, Alejandro Abarca and Wolfgang Stotz 27.1 Introduction 1293 27.2 Species description 1293 27.2.1 Argopecten purpuratus (Lamarck 1819) the northern scallop 1295 27.2.2 Zygochlamys patagonica (King and Broderip 1831) the southern scallop 1295 27.2.3 Chlamys vitrea (King & Broderip, 1831) the southern scallop.... 1296 27.3 Fisheries 1296 27.3.1 Argopecten purpuratus, the northern scallop 1296 27.3.2 Chlamys vitrea and Zygochlamys patagonica, the southern scallop 1298 27.4 How scallop aquaculture started in Chile 1299 27.5 Aquaculture production 1301 27.5.1 Production stages 1303 27.5.1.1 Hatchery broodstock conditioning and spawning 1303 27.5.1.2 Larval stage 1303 27.5.1.3 Settlement, metamorphosis and postlarval stage 1304 27.5.1.4 Seed supply 1305 27.5.1.5 Ongrowing stage 1305 27.5.2 Constraints and opportunities for northern scallop hatcheries 1306 27.5.3 Interaction between natural beds and aquaculture 1307 27.5.4 Recovery of a natural bed of Argopecten purpuratus 1308 27.5.5 Final overview and projections of Chilean scallop farming 1308 Acknowledgments 1311 References 1311 Chapter 28. Venezuela Cesar J. Lodeiros, Luis Freites, Maximiano Nunez, Anibal Velez and John H. Himmelman 28.1 Introduction 1315 28.2 Distribution, habitat and reproduction 1315 28.2.1 Euvola (Pecten) ziczac 1315 28.2.2 Argopecten nucleus 1319 28.2.3 Nodipecten (Lyropecten) nodosus 1319 28.2.4 Amusium papyraceum and Amusium laurenti 1320 28.3 Fisheries 1320 28.4 Aquaculture 1322 28.4.1 Euvola ziczac 1322 28.4.1.1 Gonad maturation and spawning 1322 28.4.1.2 Spat production 1322 28.4.1.3 Grow-out 1323 28.4.2 Nodipecten nodosus 1326 28.4.2.1 Gonad maturation and spawning 1326 28.4.2.2 Spat production 1326 28.4.2.3 Grow-out 1326 28.4.3 Argopecten nucleus 1329 28.5 Perspectives for culture 1330 References 1332 Chapter 29. Mexico Esteban Fernando Felix-Pico 29.1 Fishery 1337 29.1.1 Introduction 1337 29.1.2 Species and distribution of scallops 1338 29.1.3 History of the fishery 1339 29.1.4 Status of the resource 1340 29.1.4.1 Reproductive biology 1340 29.1.4.1.1 Size at maturity 1340 29.1.4.1.2 Fecundity 1341 29.1.4.1.3 Maturity and spawning 1341 29.1.4.2 Population biology 1344 29.1.4.3 Abundance and density 1345 29.2 Exploitation of the resource 1347 29.2.1 Fishing areas 1347 29.2.2 Fishing seasons 1348 29.2.3 Fishing operations and results 1349 29.2.4 The market value-landings data from 1970 to 2000 1349 29.3 Constraints 1350 29.3.1 Pollution 1350 29.3.2 Biological constraints 1352 29.3.3 Predation 1353 29.3.4 Resource management constraints 1354 29.4 Harvesting and transporting 1354 29.4.1 Methods 1354 29.4.2 Marketing 1355 29.5 Expected future 1356 29.6 Aquaculture 1357 29.6.1 Introduction 1357 29.6.2 Species 1358 29.6.3 History 1358 29.7 Hatchery techniques 1359 29.7.1 Conditioning 1359 29.7.2 Induction of spawning and fertilisation 1360 29.7.3 Larval culture and metamorphosis 1361 29.7.4 Genetic enhancement 1366 29.7.4.1 Selection 1366 29.7.4.2 Crossbreeding 1366 29.7.4.3 Triploidy 1367 29.7.5 Antibiotics 1368 29.8 Natural spat 1368 29.8.1 Methods employed 1368 29.8.2 Spat collection 1369 29.9 Growth 1372 29.9.1 Suspended cultures 1372 29.9.2 Bottom cultures 1375 29.9.3 Factors influencing growth 1376 29.10 Mortality 1377 29.10.1 Suspended culture 1377 29.10.2 Bottom culture 1378 29.11 Constraints 1379 29.12 Future prospects 1379 References 1380 Chapter 30. Scallop Fisheries, Mariculture and Enhancement in Australia Mike Dredge 30.1 Introduction 1391 30.2 History of the fisheries 1392 30.3 Biology of target species 1395 30.3.1 Pecten fumatus 1395 30.3.1.1 Distribution and life cycle 1395 30.3.1.2 Mortality 1396 30.3.1.3 Monitoring, abundance and population dynamics 1397 30.3.2 Amusium balloti 1398 30.3.2.1 Distribution and life cycle 1398 30.3.2.2 Mortality 1398 30.3.2.3 Monitoring, abundance and population dynamics 1399 30.4 Fisheries and their management 1400 30.4.1 Pecten fumatus 1400 30.4.1.1 Regulation 1400 30.4.1.2 Environmental management and sustainability issues 1402 30.4.2 Amusium balloti 1403 30.4.2.1 Regulation 1403 30.4.2.2 Environmental management and sustainability issues 1404 30.5 Culture of scallops in Australia 1405 30.5.1 Pecten fumatus 1405 30.5.1.1 Tasmania 1405 30.5.1.1.1 Spat production 1405 30.5.1.1.2 Culture operations 1405 30.5.1.2 Victoria 1406 30.5.1.3 New South Wales 1406 30.5.1.4 South Australia 1407 30.5.2 Amusium balloti 1407 30.6 Summary 1407 Acknowledgments 1408 References 1408 Chapter 31. New Zealand Islay D. Marsden and Michael F. Bull 31.1 Introduction 1413 31.2 Biology 1413 31.2.1 Morphology 1413 31.2.2 Distribution 1413 31.2.3 Life cycle 1414 31.2.4 Growth rates 1415 31.2.5 Mortality 1415

by "Nielsen BookData"

Details

• NCID: BA7693007X
• ISBN:
  • 0444504826
• Country Code: ne
• Title Language Code: eng
• Text Language Code: eng
• Place of Publication: Amsterdam ; Tokyo
• Pages/Volumes: xxxix, 1460 p.
• Size: 25 cm
• Subject Headings:
  • LCSH : Scallop culture
  • LCSH : Scallop fisheries
  • LCSH : Scallops
  • LCSH : Scallops -- Ecology
• Parent Bibliography ID:
  • BA00671247