CiNii Books - Research methods : a process of inquiry

Author(s)

Bibliographic Information

Research methods : a process of inquiry

Anthony M. Graziano, Michael L. Raulin

Pearson/A and B, c2007

6th ed

Available at / 2 libraries

北星学園大学図書館

140.16/GrA-327985

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Meiji University Library本

301.6||32||||D2200702372

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Note

Includes bibliographical references (p. 424-433) and index

Description and Table of Contents

Description

This comprehensive book explores the entire range of research methodologies in psychology, using a programmatic approach to introduce topics and build on earlier presentations to increase understanding. It includes the most extensive package of web-based features of any book in this market.

Table of Contents

1. Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment Using the Resources of this Text Exploring the Student Resource Website Using SPSS for Windows Science Science Is a Way of Thinking Asking Questions Science and Art (Historical Lesson: The three princes of Serendip) (Historical Lesson: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace) Acquiring Knowledge Tenacity Intuition Authority Rationalism Empiricism Science (Historical Lesson: Leonardo da Vinci) Emergence of Science Early Civilization Greek Science Medieval Science The Scientific Revolution Ethical Concerns Psychology The History of Psychology Structuralism Functionalism Psychodynamics Gestalt Psychology Behaviorism Humanistic Psychology Cognitive Psychology Women and Minorities in Psychology Modern Psychology The Science of Psychology (Cost of Neglect: Science and Pseudoscience) Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 2. Research Is a Process of Inquiry The Scientific Process Basic Assumptions of Science Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs Inductive and Deductive Thinking Models and Theories in Science (Historical Lesson: The Wright Brothers as Scientists) A Model of the Research Process Phases of Research Idea-Generating Phase Problem-Definition Phase Procedures-Design Phase Observation Phase Data-Analysis Phase Interpretation Phase Communication Phase Levels of Constraint Naturalistic Observation Case-Study Research Correlational Research Differential Research Experimental Research Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 3. The Starting Point: Asking Questions Asking and Refining Questions Pursuing Your Personal Interests Following up on the Work of Others Applied and Basic Research Refining Questions for Research Types of Variables in Research Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature Behavioral Variables Stimulus Variables Organismic Variables Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research Independent and Dependent Variables Extraneous Variables Variables as Constants Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables Research Ethics Ethical Principles for Human Research Institutional Review Boards Ethical Checks (Costs of Neglect: Never Let Technology Outrun Ethics) Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research Ethical Principles for Animal Research Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 4. Data and the Nature of Measurement Measurement (Costs of Neglect: Missing Mars) Scales of Measurement Nominal Scales Ordinal Scales Interval Scales Ratio Scales Measuring and Controlling Variables Measurement Error Operational Definitions Evaluating Measures Reliability Interrater Reliability Test-Retest Reliability Internal Consistency Reliability Effective Range Validity The Need for Objective Measurement Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 5. Statistical Analysis of Data Individual Differences Organizing Data Frequency Distributions Nominal and Ordinal Data Score Data Graphical Representation of Data Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency (Cost of Neglect: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics: A Matter of Ethics) Measures of Variability Measures of Relationship Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Regression Reliability Indices Standard Scores Statistical Inference Populations and Samples The Null Hypothesis Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels Type I and Type II Errors Inferential Statistics Testing for Mean Differences t-Test for Independent Groups Correlated t-Test Analysis of Variance The Power of a Statistical Test Effect Size Statistical versus Practical Significance Meta-analysis Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 6. Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research Examples of Naturalistic Observation Biology (Historical Lesson: Naturalistic Research and Evolution) Ethology Sociology Psychology Examples of Case-Study Research Sigmund Freud E. L. Witmer Jean Piaget Contemporary Case Studies The Value of Low-Constraint Methods Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research (Historical Lesson: The Therapist as a Scientist) Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research Using Low-Constraint Methods Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses Making Observations How to Observe Unobtrusive Measures Ethics of Unobtrusive Measures Archival Measures Sampling of Participants Sampling of Situations Sampling of Behaviors Evaluating and Interpreting Data Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods Poor Representativeness Poor Replicability Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research Limitations of the Observer Going beyond the Data Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 7. Correlational and Differential Methods of Research Correlational Research Methods Differential Research Methods Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research Artifacts and Confounding Understanding Correlational and Differential Methods Comparing These Methods When to Use These Methods Conducting Correlational Research Problem Statements Detecting Demographic, Gender, or Cultural Effects Measuring the Variables Sampling Analyzing the Data Interpreting the Correlation Conducting Differential Research Problem Statements Measuring the Variables Selecting Appropriate Control Groups Sampling Analyzing the Data Interpreting the Data Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research Problems in Determining Causation Confounding Variables Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 8. Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity Hypothesis Testing Starting the Research with an Initial Idea Statement of the Problem Operational Definitions Research Hypothesis The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis Testing the Research Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Confounding Variable Hypothesis Causal Hypothesis Validity and Threats to Validity Statistical Validity Construct Validity External Validity Internal Validity Major Confounding Variables Maturation History Testing Instrumentation Regression to the Mean Selection Attrition Diffusion of Treatment Sequence Effects Subject and Experimenter Effects Subject Effects Experimenter Effects Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 9. Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity General Control Procedures Preparation of the Setting Response Measurement Replication Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects Single- and Double-Blind Procedures Automation Using Objective Measures Multiple Observers (Historical Lesson: Reliable Reliability) Using Deception Control through Participant Selection and Assignment Participant Selection Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Ad Hoc Samples Participant Assignment Free Random Assignment Matched Random Assignment Other Matching Procedures Control through Experimental Design Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 10. Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs Variance Sources of Variance Systematic Between-Groups Variance Nonsystematic Within-Groups Variance Controlling Variance in Research Maximizing Experimental Variance Controlling Extraneous Variance Minimizing Error Variance Nonexperimental Approaches Ex Post Facto Studies (Costs of Neglect: Seeing All Sides) Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies Experimental Designs Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design Solomon's Four-Group Design Statistical Analyses t-Test Analysis of Variance Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 11. Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs Within-Subjects Design Using Within-Subjects Designs Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs Matched-Subjects Design Using Matched-Subjects Designs Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs Single-Subject Experimental Designs (Historical Lesson: Neuropsychological Cases) ABA Reversal Design Multiple-baseline Design Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design Replication in Single-Subject Research Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 12. Factorial Designs Factorial Designs Main Effects and Interactions Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs An Example: Children's Dark-Fears Study Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs Variations of Basic Factorial Design Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial Mixed Designs Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Factors Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors Mixed in Both Ways Solomon's Four-Group Design ANOVA: A Postscript Analysis of Covariance Multivariate Analysis of Variance Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 13. A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research Conducting Field Research Reasons for Doing Field Research Testing External Validity Studying Effects in the Field Improving Generalization Difficulties in Field Research Flexibility in Research Quasi-experimental Designs Nonequivalent Control-Group Design Interrupted Time-Series Design Program Evaluation (Historical Lesson: From Head Start to Heads Up) Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research Issues of Control Selecting Appropriate Dependent Measures Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures Control through Research Design in Program Evaluation Typical Program Evaluation Designs Randomized Control-group Design Nonequivalent Control-group Design Single-Group, Time-Series Design Pretest-posttest Design Program Evaluation: An Example Surveys Types of Surveys Status Survey Survey Research Steps in Survey Research Types of Survey Instruments Developing the Survey Instrument Sampling Participants Sampling Considerations (Cost of Neglect: Political Polling and Sampling) Sampling Procedures Sample Size and Confidence Intervals Survey Research Design Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 14. Final Preparations before Data Collection Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures An Initial Example A Decision-Tree Model Decision-Tree Flowcharts Identify Research Variables Describe the Study Identify the Study's Major Characteristics Select the Appropriate Statistics Secondary Analyses Post Hoc Analyses Secondary Analyses to Help to Explain the Results Data Snooping Caveats and Disclaimers (Historical Lesson: Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics) Pre-Data Check I. Initial Problem Definition II. Clarity of the Research Hypotheses III. Statistical Analysis Procedures IV. Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions V. Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation VI. Adequacy of Dependent Measures VII. Are All Controls in Place? VIII. Participants Participant Selection Sample Size Participant Assignment Participant Availability Research Ethics Considerations IX. Preparation of the Setting Space and Equipment Personnel X. Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises 15. Research Methodology: An Evolving Discipline New Directions in Research Methodology The Evolution of Research Questions and Methods New Statistical Methods Analysis of Variance Multidimensional Scaling Statistical Analysis of Neuro-images Meta-analysis and Cumulative Knowledge Literature Reviews Alpha Levels and Knowledge Beta Levels and Knowledge Meta-Analysis and the Problem of Type II Errors The Impact of Other Disciplines Interdisciplinary Research Moving Research out of the Laboratory The Impact of Computers Scientific Research and Society Science: An Interaction between Empiricism and Rationalism The Growth of Science Ethical Conduct in Research The Essence of Science: A Reminder Putting It into Practice Chapter Summary Exercises Appendix A: Using the Textbook Website Resources Available What to Do If You Have Problems Getting Help Appendix Summary Appendix B: Writing a Research Report: APA Publication Style Structure of a Research Article Writing the Research Report Using Levels of Headings to Organize Sections of a Research Report Title Page Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References Writing Style Appendix Summary Appendix C: Conducting Library Research Using the Library Library Resources The Reference Librarian How Research Materials Are Organized Primary Sources Journal Articles Dissertations Secondary Sources Review Articles Books and Chapters in Books Annual Reviews Finding the Relevant Research Abstracting Services Psychological Abstracts ERIC Subject or Keyword Services Library Catalogs Books in Print Index Medicus Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature Literature Citation Indexes Search Strategies Searching by Topic Identifying Key Terms Computer Searches Searching Backward Searching Forward Appendix Summary Appendix D: Random Numbers Appendix E: Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions Glossary References Author Index Subject Index

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