AIDS update 2009 : an annual overview of acquired immune deficiency syndrome
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AIDS update 2009 : an annual overview of acquired immune deficiency syndrome
McGraw-Hill, c2009
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Includes bibliographies and index
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- Contents About the Author iii A Quarter Century of AIDS and Counting: A Humanitarian Crisis ix AIDS UPDATE 2009 xvi Preface xviii Introduction: Histories of Global Pandemics, AIDS, Its Place in History, Overview of HIV/AIDS, International AIDS Conferences and Means of Remembering the AIDS Quilt, Candlelight Memorial, and World AIDS Day 1 Three Words Echo Around the World: AIDS Crisis Worsens! 1 History of Global Pandemics and Epidemics 1 Fear, Ignorance and Condemnation: Who Is to Blame? 2 Imagine a World Without AIDS 2 Overview of HIV/AIDS 4 AIDS: A Unique Disease 5 AIDS: A Cause of Death 5 Another Anniversary 6 A New Anniversary 6 International AIDS Conferences 6 Means of Remembering 7 The 25th Candlelight Memorial 9 Walking to Change the Course of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic United States 10 Bicycle Riding to Change the Course of the HIV/AIDS Epidemic United States 12 World AIDS Day: An International Day of Coordinated Action: A Time to Recharge and Reconnect 12 The World Health and UNAIDS Organizations 14 The Future 14 National AIDS Hotlines 16 Useful Internet Addresses 16 1 AIDS: Defining the Disease and Finding Its Cause 19 The New Millennium 19 AIDS: A Disease or a Syndrome? 20 First Reaction to AIDS: Denial 21 What Causes AIDS? 22 How Does HIV Cause AIDS? 23 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Reports 25 Discovery of the AIDS Virus 25 Defining the Illness: AIDS Surveillance 27 Summary 29 Review Questions 29 2 What Causes AIDS: Origin of the AIDS Virus 30 The Cause of AIDS: The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) 30 Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS 35 Origin of HIV: The AIDS Virus 37 Summary on the Origin of HIV 43 Summary 44 Review Questions 44 3 Biological Characteristics of the AIDS Virus 46 Viruses Need a Host Cell in Order to Reproduce 46 Viruses Are Parasites 46 Viruses Specific to Cell Type 47 Retroviruses 47 Description of HIV
- How It Attaches to a Host Cell and Buds Out of the Cell 47 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): Its Life Cycle 50 The HIV Life Cycle 50 How HIV Escapes the Infected Cell 52 Basic Genetic Structure of Retroviral Genomes 54 Genetic Revolution 59 Formation of Genetic Recombination in HIV 59 Distinct Genotypes (Subtypes/Clades) of HIV-1 Worldwide Based on ENV and GAG Proteins 60 Summary 63 Review Questions 63 4 Anti-HIV Therapy 65 Anti-HIV Therapy 66 HIV Eradication Update 2008 67 Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Drugs with FDA Approval 67 The HIV Medicine Chest: ART Drugs Receiving FDA Approval 69 FDA-Approved Nucleoside/Non-Nucleoside Analog Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors and Protease Inhibitors 71 Use of Non-Nucleoside Analog Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors 74 FDA-Approved Protease Inhibitors 74 Protease Inhibitors 74 Entry Inhibitors and Problems 76 Integrase Inhibitors 77 Development and Selection of HIV Drug-Resistant Mutants 78 Development of HIV Drug Resistance to Protease Inhibitors 78 How Combination Drug Therapy Can Reduce the Chance of HIV Drug Resistance 82 HIV Treatment Regimen Failure 83 Viral Load: Its Relationship to HIV Disease and AIDS 88 Medical Complications Associated with Anti-HIV Drug Therapies (ART) 88 The Smart Trial Was Cancelled on January 11, 2006 97 Novel Drugs 97 Disclaimer 97 Summary 99 Some AIDS Therapy Information Hotlines 100 Review Questions 101 5 The Immunology of HIV Disease/AIDS 103 The Immune System 103 Human Lymphocytes: T Cells and B Cells 105 Antibodies and HIV Disease 113 Cellular Micro-RNAs Contribute to HIV Latency in Resting Primary CD4+ T Cells 115 Immune System Dysfunction 115 Original Antigenic Sin 117 The Search for Additional Receptors (Coreceptors) to CD4: FUSIN or CXCKR-4 (R-4) 118 CCKR-5 (R-5) Receptor 118 Emergence of HIV Strains That Vary in Their Lethal Abilities 119 In Search of Genetic Resistance to HIV Infection 119 T4 Cell Depletion and Immune Suppression 122 Impact of T4 Cell Depletion 122 Role of Monocytes and Macrophages in HIV Infection 123 Where Do T4 or CD4+ Cells Become HIV Infected? 124 Summary 127 Review Questions 127 6 Opportunistic Infections and Cancers Associated with HIV Disease/AIDS 128 What Is an Opportunistic Disease? 128 The Prevalence of Opportunistic Diseases 129 Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected People 129 TB and HIV 140 Cancer or Malignancy in HIV/AIDS Patients 140 Disclaimer 145 Summary 145 Review Questions 145 7 A Profile of Biological Indicators for HIV Disease and Progression to AIDS 146 HIV Disease Defined 146 Stages of HIV Disease (Without Drug Therapy) 150 HIV Disease Without Symptoms, with Symptoms, and AIDS 156 Production of HIV-Specific Antibodies 157 Prognostic Biological Markers Related to AIDS Progression 161 HIV Infection of the Central Nervous System (CNS) 167 Neuropathies in HIV Disease/AIDS Patients 168 Pediatric Clinical Signs and Symptoms 169 Summary 170 Review Questions 171 8 Epidemiology and Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus 172 We Must Stop HIV Transmission Now! 174 Epidemiology of HIV Infection 174 Transmission of Two Strains of HIV (HIV-1/HIV-2) 175 Is HIV Transmitted by Insects? 175 HIV Transmission 176 HIV Transmission in Family/Household Settings 178 Noncasual Transmission 178 Gay Men Putting Themselves at High Risk for HIV Infection 189 Problem 194 Injection-Drug Users and HIV Transmission 198 United States: Heterosexual Injection-Drug Use (idU) 202 Cesarean Section 215 Conclusion 216 National AIDS Resources 216 Summary 217 Challenge Your Assumptions about the HIV Infected 217 Review Questions 217 9 Preventing the Transmission of HIV 219 The AIDS Generation: I Knew Everything About It, and I Still Got It! 220 Prevention, Not Treatment, Is the Least Expensive and Most Effective Way to Stop the Spread of HIV/AIDS 220 Global Prevention 221 Antiretroviral Drugs Having an Impact on Prevention, but We Can't Treat Our Way Out of This Pandemic 222 Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic 224 Preventing the Transmission of HIV 226 Sexual Risk Taking Depends on Sexual Activity 229 New Rules to an Old Game: Promoting Safer Sex Nobody Has a Body to Die for! 231 The Male Condom 234 The Female Condom or Femidom (Vaginal Pouch) 240 An Alternative to Condoms: Vaginal Microbicides 242 Injection-Drug Use and HIV Transmission: The Twin Epidemics 245 HIV Prevention for Injection-Drug Users 245 Lifting the Ban on the Use of Federal Funding to Support Needle Exchange Programs 247 Prevention of Blood and Blood Product HIV Transmission 248 Infection Control Procedures 249 Sexual Partner Notification: Disclosure 250 The U.S. Federal Government Has Now Adopted Partner Notification as Its Cornerstone in Its Effort to Help Control the Spread of HIV 251 The First Human Vaccine: The Impact of Vaccines on Infectious Diseases 254 HIV Vaccine Development and Its Role in Prevention 254 Types of Experimental HIV Vaccines 258 DNA Vaccine 258 Problems in the Search for HIV Vaccine 260 Summary 262 Review Questions 263 10 Prevalence of HIV Infections, AIDS Cases, and Deaths Among Select Groups in the United States and in Other Countries 264 A Word about HIV/AIDS Data 265 The Millennium: Year 2009 270 Formula for Estimating HIV Infections 272 Behavioral Risk Groups and Statistical Evaluation 274 Estimates of AIDS Cases and HIV Infection 284 Newly Infected 286 Shape of the HIV Pandemic: United States 288 Shape of AIDS Pandemic: United States 288 Estimates of Deaths and Years of Potential Life Lost Due to AIDS in the United States 290 Canada Estimated HIV/AIDS Cases through 2008: Population 33,310,000 292 Global Prevalence and Impact of HIV/AIDS 294 Connected But Separate 296 Workforce--South Africa: Some Examples 298 Education: Teachers and Students-- South Africa and Some Countries in Southern Africa 298 Other HIV/AIDS Time Bombs in Asia: India, China, and Russia 299 Summary 303 Review Questions 303 11 Prevalence of HIV Infection and AIDS Cases Among Women and Children 305 AIDS Is Defining the Lives of Millions of Women 306 Female Vulnerability 306 Every Day a Tragedy 306 Triple Jeopardy 306 Annual International Women's Day March 8 307 Women: AIDS and HIV Infections Worldwide 307 Women: HIV-Positive and AIDS Cases United States 308 Childbearing Women 3 23 Internet 324 Pediatric HIV-Positive and AIDS Cases United States: A Fight We Can Win! 324 Orphaned Children Due to HIV Infection and AIDS 325 The Phenomenon of AIDS Orphans 326 Summary 332 Review Questions 332 12 Prevalence of HIV Infection and AIDS Among Young Adults, Ages 13 to 24 334 Global HIV Infections in Young Adults 334 Addressing the AIDS Pandemic Among Young Adults 335 How Large Is the Young Adult Population in the United States? 336 HIV/AIDS Won't Affect Us! 337 Estimate of HIV-Infected and AIDS Cases Among Young Adults in the United States 338 Summary 346 Internet 346 Other Useful Sources 346 Review Questions 346 13 Testing for Human Immunodeficiency Virus 347 Determining the Presence of Antibody Produced When HIV Is Present 348 Requests for HIV Testing 348 Reasons for HIV Testing 349 Laboratory Methods for Detecting HIV 350 ELISA HIV Antibody Test 351 Western Blot Assay 358 New ELISA Antibody Testing and Viral Load Procedures Reveal Early versus Late HIV Infection 361 Rapid HIV Testing 363 FDA Approves Two Home HIV Antibody Test Kits 367 Some Screening and Confirmatory Tests for HIV 368 Deciding Who Should Get an Hiv Test and When 371 Why Is HIV Test Information Necessary? 372 Immigration into the United States 372 Testing, Competency, and Informed Consent 374 Summary 381 Review Questions 382 14 AIDS and Society: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior 383 HIV/AIDS Is a Story in Our Lifetime 384 The New Millennium and HIV/AIDS 385 HIV/AIDS Is an Unusual Social Disease 385 Discrimination vs. Compassion and Support 385 HIV/AIDS Is Here to Stay 386 AIDS 387 Blame Someone, DeJa Vu 387 Fear: Panic and Hysteria Over the Spread of HIV/AIDS in the United States 388 Whom Is the General Public to Believe? 389 AIDS Education and Behavior: Dissipating Fear with Education 394 The Character of Society 401 Dealing with Discrimination: The Americans with Disabilities Act 406 Federal and Private Sector Financing: Creation of an AIDS Industry 408 U.S. Government Believes HIV/AIDS Is a Threat to National Security 411 Global HIV/AIDS Funding for Underdeveloped Nations 412 Forms of U.S. Monetary Assistance for HIV/AIDS 418 Summary 423 Review Questions 424 Answers to Review Questions 425 Glossary 431 References 439 Index 461
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