Critical metals handbook

Author(s)

• Gunn, Gus
• British Geological Survey
• American Geophysical Union
• John Wiley & Sons

Bibliographic Information

Critical metals handbook

edited by Gus Gunn

Wiley, 2014

Note

"Published in collaboration with the British Geological Survey"

"This work is a co-publication between the American Geophysical Union and Wiley"

Includes bibliographical references and index

Description and Table of Contents

Description

Mankind is using a greater variety of metals in greater quantities than ever before. As a result there is increasing global concern over the long-term availability of secure and adequate supplies of the metals needed by society. Critical metals, which are those of growing economic importance that might be susceptible to future scarcity, are a particular worry. For many of these we have little information on how they are concentrated in the Earth's crust, how to extract them from their ores, and how to use, recycle and dispose of them effectively and safely. Published with the British Geological Survey, the Critical Metals Handbook brings together a wealth of knowledge on critical metals and provides a foundation for improving the future security and sustainability of critical metal supplies. Written by international experts, it provides a unique source of authoritative information on diverse aspects of the critical metals, including geology, deposits, processing, applications, recycling, environmental issues and markets. It is aimed at a broad non-specialist audience, including professionals and academics working in the exploration and mining sectors, in mining finance and investment, and in mineral processing and manufacturing. It will also be a valuable reference for policy makers concerned with resource management, land-use planning, eco-efficiency, recycling and related fields.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Metal resources use and criticality 1 T.E. Graedel Gus Gunn and Luis Tercero Espinoza The geology and technology of metals 1 Key concepts 1 Definitions and terminology 3 Will we run out of minerals? 5 Geological assessment 6 Considerations of supply and demand 6 Recycling and reuse of metals 9 The concept of criticality 10 Assessments of criticality 11 Improving criticality assessment 14 Implications of criticality for corporate and governmental policy 16 Outlining this book 16 Acknowledgements 17 Note 18 References 18 2 The mining industry and the supply of critical minerals 20 David Humphreys Suppliers of minerals - miners and explorers 21 Industry dynamics 23 Constraints on mineral supply response 27 Natural constraints 27 Economic constraints 29 Institutional constraints 31 Critical minerals and the role of China 34 Policy issues 38 Notes 39 References 39 3 Recycling of (critical) metals 41 Christian Hageluken Rationale and benefits 41 The urban mine 41 Recycling benefits 43 Status and challenges of recycling critical metals 45 The metals life cycle 45 Waste and resource legislation 47 The recycling value chain 47 Recycling challenges 48 The seven conditions for effective recycling 50 Recycling technologies 51 Collection and pre-processing 52 Metallurgical recovery 54 Status of recycling of the EU critical metals 57 The significance of life-cycle structures 58 Case study 1: Industrial PGM applications 59 Case study 2: Automotive PGM applications 60 Case study 3: Electronic PGM applications 60 Global flows of old products 60 Differences in recycling rates and pathways for improvement 61 Conclusion and the way forward 62 Innovation needs 62 Resource security as a societal driver for recycling 64 Mining and recycling as complementary systems 64 Conclusions 66 Notes 66 References 67 4 Antimony 70 Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Introduction 70 Definitions and characteristics 70 Abundance in the Earth 71 Mineralogy 71 Major deposit classes 72 Gold-antimony (epithermal) deposits 74 Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein and carbonate replacement deposits 77 Reduced magmatic gold systems 78 Extraction methods and processing 78 Mining 78 Ore processing beneficiation and conversion to metal 79 Specifications 82 Uses 82 Antimony trioxide 84 Sodium antimonate 84 Other non-metallurgical uses 85 Antimony metal 85 Recycling 85 Substitution 86 Resources and reserves 86 Production 87 Projects under development 90 World trade 91 Prices 92 Environmental aspects 94 Outlook 95 References 96 5 Beryllium 99 David L. Trueman and Phillip Sabey Introduction 99 Properties of beryllium 99 Distribution and abundance in the Earth's crust 100 Uses of beryllium 100 Alloys containing less than 2% beryllium especially copper-beryllium 101 Pure beryllium metal and alloys containing over 60% beryllium 102 Beryllia (BeO) ceramics 103 World production 103 World trade 105 World resources 106 Mineralogy of beryllium 106 Beryllium deposits 107 Pegmatite deposits 107 Hydrothermal deposits 110 Mining and processing of beryllium 110 Beryl ores 110 Bertrandite ores 110 Processing of beryl and bertrandite to beryllium hydroxide 111 Production of metal and alloys from beryllium hydroxide 113 Production of beryllium oxide from beryllium hydroxide 113 Recycling 115 Substitution 116 Environmental aspects 116 Prices 118 Outlook 118 Note 119 References 119 6 Cobalt 122 Stephen Roberts and Gus Gunn Introduction 122 Physical and chemical properties 122 Distribution and abundance in the Earth 122 Mineralogy 122 Deposit types 123 Hydrothermal deposits 123 Magmatic deposits 129 Laterites 130 Manganese nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the seafloor 132 Extraction processing and refining 134 Cobalt from nickel sulfide ores 134 Contentsvii Cobalt from nickel laterite ores 134 Cobalt from copper-cobalt ores in DRC and Zambia 135 Other sources of cobalt 136 World production and trade 138 Resources and reserves 139 uses 140 Recycling 142 Substitution 142 Environmental issues 143 Prices 144 Outlook 144 Acknowledgements 146 Notes 146 References 146 7 Gallium 150 Thomas Butcher and Teresa Brown Introduction 150 Physical and chemical properties 150 Mineralogy and distribution 150 Sources of gallium 151 Bauxite 151 Sphalerite (ZnS) 151 Other geological settings 152 Recovery methods and refining 152 Primary recovery 152 Secondary recovery 153 Refining and purification 155 Gallium in GaAs semiconductors 155 Specifications and uses 157 Gallium metal 157 Gallium antimonide 157 Gallium arsenide 157 Gallium chemicals 159 Gallium nitride 160 Gallium phosphide 162 Photovoltaics 162 Substitution 163 Environmental aspects 163 World resources and production 164 Production in 2010 164 Future supplies 166 World trade 167 Prices 167 Outlook 170 Acknowledgements 171 References 172 8 Germanium 177 Frank Melcher and Peter Buchholz Introduction 177 Physical and chemical properties 177 Distribution and abundance in the Earth 177 Mineralogy 178 Deposit types 179 Accumulation of germanium in sulfide deposits 181 Enrichment of germanium in lignite and coal 185 Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 186 Extraction 186 Processing 186 Specifications 188 Germanium tetrachloride GeCl 4 188 Germanium dioxide GeO 2 188 First reduction metal 188 Production of zone-refined metal ('intrinsic' metal) 188 Single crystals 188 Uses 189 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 189 Substitution 191 Environmental aspects of the life cycle of germanium and its products 192 Resources and reserves 192 Production 194 Future supplies 196 World trade 197 Prices 197 Outlook 198 Supply challenges 198 Demand drivers 199 Supply and demand scenario 200 Acknowledgments 200 Notes 200 References 200 9 Indium 204 Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Introduction 204 Physical and chemical properties 204 Abundance in the Earth's crust 205 Mineralogy 205 Major deposit classes 206 Base-metal sulfide deposits 209 Polymetallic vein-type deposits 209 Base-metal-rich tin-tungsten and skarn deposits 210 Base-metal-rich epithermal deposits 210 Extraction methods and processing 210 Mining 210 Processing beneficiation and conversion to metal 212 Indium production from copper ores 213 Indium production from tin ores 214 Indium recovery from secondary sources 214 Specifications and uses 214 Indium-tin oxide (ITO) 215 Alloys and solders 215 Semiconductors 216 Others 216 Resources and reserves 217 Production 218 Production from residues and scrap 220 Projects under development 221 Abandoned production 221 World trade 222 Prices 223 Recycling and substitution 224 Environmental aspects 225 Outlook 226 References 227 10 Lithium 230 Keith Evans Introduction 230 Properties and abundance in the Earth 230 Mineralogy and deposit types 230 Pegmatites 232 Continental brines 232 Geothermal brines 234 Oilfield brines 234 Hectorite 234 Jadarite 235 Extraction methods and processing 236 Specification and uses 238 Recycling 240 Substitution 240 Environmental factors 241 World resources and production 241 Reserves and resources 241 Production 244 Current producers 245 Production costs 248 Future supplies 249 Pegmatite-based projects 249 Continental brines 250 Geothermal brine 251 Oilfield brine 251 Hectorite 252 Jadarite 253 World trade 253 Prices 254 Outlook 255 Acknowledgements 258 Notes 258 References 258 11 Magnesium 261 Neale R. Neelameggham and Bob Brown Introduction 261 Physical and chemical properties 261 Distribution and abundance in the Earth 262 Mineralogy 262 Deposit types 263 Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 263 Nineteenth-century magnesium production processes 266 Commercial magnesium production processes of the twentieth century 266 Specifications and uses 267 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 269 Substitution 271 Environmental aspects 272 Non-greenhouse-gas regulations - electrolytic magnesium production 272 Non-greenhouse-gas regulations - thermal magnesium 273 Greenhouse-gas emission studies 273 Contentsix World resources and production 275 Future supplies 277 World trade 277 Prices 277 Outlook 279 References 281 12 Platinum-group metals 284 Gus Gunn Introduction 284 Properties and abundance in the Earth 284 Mineralogy 285 Major deposit classes 285 PGM-dominant deposits 286 Nickel-copper-dominant deposits 292 Other deposit types 293 Extraction and processing 294 Extraction methods 294 Processing 294 Specifications and uses 297 Uses of platinum palladium and rhodium 297 Uses of ruthenium iridium and osmium 300 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 300 Substitution 301 Environmental issues 301 World resources and production 302 Resources and reserves 302 Production 302 World trade 304 Prices 306 Outlook 306 Acknowledgements 309 Note 309 References 310 13 Rare earth elements 312 Frances Wall Introduction 312 Physical and chemical properties 312 Distribution and abundance in the Earth's crust 313 Mineralogy 315 Deposit types 317 Carbonatite-related REE deposits 319 Alkaline igneous rocks 323 Other hydrothermal veins 324 Iron oxide-apatite deposits including iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits 324 Placer deposits (mineral sands) 324 Ion adsorption deposits 324 Seafloor deposits 325 By-products co-products and waste products 325 Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 325 Mining 325 Beneficiation 325 Extraction and separation of the REE 327 Specifications and uses 328 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 328 Substitution 330 Environmental aspects 330 World resources and production 331 Future supplies 332 World trade 333 Prices 334 Outlook 336 Note 337 References 337 14 Rhenium 340 Tom A. Millensifer Dave Sinclair Ian Jonasson and Anthony Lipmann Introduction 340 Physical and chemical properties 340 Distribution and abundance 341 Mineralogy 341 Deposit types 342 Porphyry deposits 342 Vein deposits 345 Sediment-hosted copper deposits 345 Uranium deposits 346 Magmatic nickel-copper-platinumgroup element (PGE) deposits 346 World resources and production 346 Future supplies 348 Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 350 Specifications and uses 352 Recycling and re-use 354 Catalysts 354 Superalloys 355 Substitution 355 Environmental issues 356 World trade 356 Prices 357 Outlook 358 References 359 15 Tantalum and niobium 361 Robert Linnen David L. Trueman and Richard Burt Introduction 361 Physical and chemical properties 361 Distribution and abundance in the Earth 361 Mineralogy 362 Deposit types 363 Carbonatite deposits 363 Alkaline to peralkaline granites and syenites 367 Peraluminous pegmatites 368 Peraluminous granites 370 Extraction methods and processing 371 Specifications and uses 374 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 375 Substitution 375 Environmental aspects of niobium and tantalum 376 Geopolitical aspects 376 World resources and production 377 Future supplies 379 Prices 380 Outlook 381 Note 382 References 382 16 Tungsten 385 Teresa Brown and Peter Pitfield Introduction 385 Physical and chemical properties 385 Distribution and abundance in the Earth's crust 385 Mineralogy 386 Deposit types 386 Vein/stockwork deposits 387 Skarn deposits 389 Disseminated or greisen deposits 390 Porphyry deposits 390 Breccia deposits 391 Stratabound deposits 391 Pegmatite deposits 392 Pipe deposits 392 Hot-spring deposits 392 Placer deposits 392 Brine/evaporite deposits 392 Extraction methods processing and beneficiation 392 Extraction 392 Processing 393 Specifications and uses 395 Specifications 395 Uses 396 Recycling re-use and resource efficiency 398 Old scrap 398 New scrap 398 Unrecovered scrap 399 Recycling methods 399 Substitution 399 Environmental aspects of the life cycle of the metal and its products 399 World resources and production 400 Resources and reserves 400 Production 401 Future supplies 402 World trade 404 Prices 406 Outlook 406 Acknowledgements 409 References 409 Appendices 414 Glossary of technical terms 419 Index 431

by "Nielsen BookData"

Details

• NCID: BB16072227
• ISBN:
  • 9780470671719
• LCCN: 2013022393
• Country Code: uk
• Title Language Code: eng
• Text Language Code: eng
• Place of Publication: Chichester
• Pages/Volumes: xii, 439 p.
• Size: 26 cm
• Classification:
  • LCC : TA459
  • DC23 : 669
• Subject Headings:
  • LCSH : Metals -- Handbooks, manuals, etc