Aerosol science : technology and applications

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Aerosol science : technology and applications

Ian Colbeck, Mihalis Lazaridis

John Wiley & Sons, 2014

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Includes bibliographical references and index

Description and Table of Contents

Description

AEROSOL SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS Aerosols influence many areas of our daily life. They are at the core of environmental problems such as global warming, photochemical smog and poor air quality. They can also have diverse effects on human health, where exposure occurs in both outdoor and indoor environments. However, aerosols can have beneficial effects too; the delivery of drugs to the lungs, the delivery of fuels for combustion and the production of nanomaterials all rely on aerosols. Advances in particle measurement technologies have made it possible to take advantage of rapid changes in both particle size and concentration. Likewise, aerosols can now be produced in a controlled fashion. Reviewing many technological applications together with the current scientific status of aerosol modelling and measurements, this book includes: Satellite aerosol remote sensing The effects of aerosols on climate change Air pollution and health Pharmaceutical aerosols and pulmonary drug delivery Bioaerosols and hospital infections Particle emissions from vehicles The safety of emerging nanomaterials Radioactive aerosols: tracers of atmospheric processes With the importance of this topic brought to the public's attention after the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajoekull, this book provides a timely, concise and accessible overview of the many facets of aerosol science.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xiii Preface xv 1. Introduction 1 Mihalis Lazaridis and Ian Colbeck 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Size and Shape 5 1.3 Size Distribution 6 1.4 Chemical Composition 10 1.5 Measurements and Sampling 11 References 12 2. Aerosol Dynamics 15 Mihalis Lazaridis and Yannis Drossinos 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 General Dynamic Equation 17 2.2.1 Discrete Particle Size Distribution 18 2.2.2 Continuous Particle Size Distribution 19 2.3 Nucleation: New Particle Formation 19 2.3.1 Classical Nucleation Theory 20 2.3.2 Multicomponent Nucleation 22 2.3.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation 23 2.3.4 Atmospheric Nucleation 24 2.4 Growth by Condensation 26 2.5 Coagulation and Agglomeration 27 2.5.1 Brownian Coagulation 28 2.5.2 Agglomeration 28 2.6 Deposition Mechanisms 32 2.6.1 Stokes Law 32 2.6.2 Gravitational Settling 32 2.6.3 Deposition by Diffusion 34 2.6.4 Deposition by Impaction 34 2.6.5 Phoretic Effects 34 2.6.6 Atmospheric Aerosol Deposition 35 2.6.7 Deposition in the Human Respiratory Tract 36 2.7 Resuspension 38 2.7.1 Monolayer Resuspension 38 2.7.2 Multilayer Resuspension 39 References 41 3. Recommendations for Aerosol Sampling 45 Alfred Wiedensohler, Wolfram Birmili, Jean-Philippe Putaud, and John Ogren 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Guidelines for Standardized Aerosol Sampling 46 3.2.1 General Recommendations 46 3.2.2 Standardization of Aerosol Inlets 47 3.2.3 Humidity Control 49 3.3 Concrete Sampling Configurations 53 3.3.1 General Aspects of Particle Motion 53 3.3.2 Laminar Flow Sampling Configuration 54 3.3.3 Turbulent Flow Sampling Configuration 55 3.4 Artifact-Free Sampling for Organic Carbon Analysis 57 Acknowledgements 59 References 59 4. Aerosol Instrumentation 61 Da-Ren Chen and David Y. H. Pui 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 General Strategy 62 4.3 Aerosol Sampling Inlets and Transport 63 4.4 Integral Moment Measurement 64 4.4.1 Total Number Concentration Measurement: Condensation Particle Counter (CPC) 65 4.4.2 Total Mass Concentration Measurement: Quartz-Crystal Microbalance (QCM) and Tapered-Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) 66 4.4.3 Light-Scattering Photometers and Nephelometers 67 4.5 Particle Surface Area Measurement 68 4.6 Size-Distribution Measurement 70 4.6.1 Techniques based on Particle-Light Interaction 70 4.6.2 Techniques based on Particle Inertia 71 4.6.3 Techniques based on Particle Electrical Mobility 74 4.6.4 Techniques based on Particle Diffusion 77 4.7 Chemical Composition Measurement 78 4.8 Conclusion 80 References 82 5. Filtration Mechanisms 89 Sarah Dunnett 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Deposition Mechanisms 91 5.2.1 Flow Models 92 5.2.2 Diffusional Deposition 96 5.2.3 Deposition by Interception 98 5.2.4 Deposition due to Inertial Impaction 99 5.2.5 Gravitational Deposition 100 5.2.6 Electrostatic Deposition 100 5.3 Factors Affecting Efficiency 104 5.3.1 Particle Rebound 104 5.3.2 Particle Loading 106 5.4 Filter Randomness 109 5.5 Applications 109 5.6 Conclusions 110 Nomenclature 110 References 113 6. Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Aerosols 119 Sagnik Dey and Sachchida Nand Tripathi 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Surface-Based Remote Sensing 120 6.2.1 Passive Remote Sensing 120 6.2.2 Active Remote Sensing 126 6.3 Satellite-Based Remote Sensing 126 6.3.1 Passive Remote Sensing 127 6.3.2 Active Spaceborne Lidar 135 6.3.3 Applications of Satellite-Based Aerosol Products 136 6.4 Summary and Future Requirements 141 Acknowledgements 142 References 142 7. Atmospheric Particle Nucleation 153 Mikko Sipila, Katrianne Lehtipalo, and Markku Kulmala 7.1 General Relevance 153 7.2 Detection of Atmospheric Nanoparticles 156 7.2.1 Condensation Particle Counting 156 7.2.2 Electrostatic Methods 158 7.2.3 Mass Spectrometric Methods for Cluster Detection 160 7.3 Atmospheric Observations of New Particle Formation 163 7.3.1 Nucleation 163 7.3.2 Growth 165 7.4 Laboratory Experiments 166 7.4.1 Sulfuric Acid Nucleation 166 7.4.2 Hunt for Compound X 168 7.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges 169 References 170 8. Atmospheric Aerosols and Climate Impacts 181 Maria Kanakidou 8.1 Introduction 181 8.2 Global Aerosol Distributions 181 8.3 Aerosol Climate Impacts 182 8.4 Simulations of Global Aerosol Distributions 186 8.5 Extinction of Radiation by Aerosols (Direct Effect) 190 8.5.1 Aerosol Optical Depth and Direct Radiative Forcing of Aerosol Components 193 8.6 Aerosols and Clouds (Indirect Effect) 194 8.6.1 How Aerosols Become CCNs and Grow into Cloud Droplets 195 8.7 Radiative Forcing Estimates 200 8.8 The Way Forward 203 References 203 9. Air Pollution and Health and the Role of Aerosols 207 Pat Goodman and Otto Hanninen 9.1 Background 207 9.2 Size Fractions 208 9.3 Which Pollution Particle Sizes Are Important? 209 9.4 What Health Outcomes Are Associated with Exposure to Air Pollution? 209 9.5 Sources of Atmospheric Aerosols 210 9.6 Particle Deposition in the Lungs 210 9.7 Aerosol Interaction Mechanisms in the Human Body 211 9.8 Human Respiratory Outcomes and Aerosol Exposure 215 9.9 Cardiovascular Outcomes and Aerosol Exposure 215 9.10 Conclusions and Recommendations 216 References 216 10. Pharmaceutical Aerosols and Pulmonary Drug Delivery 221 Darragh Murnane, Victoria Hutter, and Marie Harang 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 Pharmaceutical Aerosols in Disease Treatment 223 10.2.1 Asthma 223 10.2.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 224 10.2.3 Cystic Fibrosis 224 10.2.4 Respiratory Tract Infection 225 10.2.5 Beyond the Lung: Systemic Drug Delivery 225 10.3 Aerosol Physicochemical Properties of Importance in Lung Deposition 226 10.4 The Fate of Inhaled Aerosol Particles in the Lung 228 10.4.1 Paracellular Transport 229 10.4.2 Transcellular Transport 229 10.4.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport 230 10.4.4 Models for Determining the Fate of Inhaled Aerosols 231 10.5 Production of Inhalable Particles 233 10.5.1 Particle Attrition and Milling 233 10.5.2 Constructive Particle Production 235 10.6 Aerosol Generation and Delivery Systems for Pulmonary Therapy 237 10.6.1 Nebulised Disease Therapies 237 10.6.2 Pressurised Metered-Dose Inhaler Systems 241 10.6.3 Dry-Powder Inhalation 248 10.6.4 Advancing Drug-Delivery Strategies 252 10.7 Product Performance Testing 253 10.7.1 Total-Emitted-Dose Testing 253 10.7.2 Aerodynamic Particle Size Determination: Inertial Impaction Analysis 253 10.8 Conclusion and Outlook 255 References 255 11. Bioaerosols and Hospital Infections 271 Ka man Lai, Zaheer Ahmad Nasir, and Jonathon Taylor 11.1 The Importance of Bioaerosols and Infections 271 11.2 Bioaerosol-Related Infections in Hospitals 272 11.3 Bioaerosol Properties and Deposition in Human Respiratory Systems 275 11.4 Chain of Infection and Infection Control in Hospitals 275 11.5 Application of Aerosol Science and Technology in Infection Control 277 11.5.1 Understanding Hospital Aerobiology and Infection Control 277 11.5.2 Bioaerosol Experiments and Models 280 11.5.3 Numerical Analysis of Particle Dispersion in Hospitals 281 11.5.4 Air-Cleaning Technologies 282 11.6 Conclusion 285 References 285 12. Nanostructured Material Synthesis in the Gas Phase 291 Peter V. Pikhitsa and Mansoo Choi 12.1 Introduction 291 12.2 Aerosol-Based Synthesis 292 12.3 Flame Synthesis 292 12.4 Flame and Laser Synthesis 299 12.5 Laser-Induced Synthesis 302 12.6 Metal-Powder Combustion 309 12.7 Spark Discharge 313 12.8 Assembling Useful Nanostructures 314 12.9 Conclusions 322 References 323 13. The Safety of Emerging Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials 327 L. Reijnders 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Human Health and Inhaled Persistent Engineered Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials 330 13.3 Human Health Hazards and Risks Linked to the Ingestion of Persistent Inorganic Nanomaterials 333 13.4 Ecotoxicity of Persistent Inorganic and Carbon Nanomaterials 335 13.5 Conclusion 336 References 336 14. Environmental Health in Built Environments 345 Zaheer Ahmad Nasir 14.1 Environmental Hazards and Built Environments 345 14.2 Particulate Contaminants 348 14.2.1 Transport and Behaviour of Particles in Built Environments 349 14.3 Gas Contaminants 351 14.3.1 Biological Hazards 351 14.3.2 Physical Hazards 357 14.3.3 Ergonomic Hazards 358 14.3.4 Ventilation and Environmental Hazards 359 14.3.5 Energy-Efficient Built Environments, Climate Change and Environmental Health 361 References 362 15. Particle Emissions from Vehicles 369 Jonathan Symonds 15.1 Introduction 369 15.2 Engine Concepts and Technologies 370 15.2.1 Air-Fuel Mixture 370 15.2.2 Spark-Ignition Engines 371 15.2.3 Compression-Ignition Engines 372 15.2.4 Two-Stroke Engines 372 15.2.5 Gas-Turbine Engines 373 15.3 Particle Formation 373 15.3.1 In-Cylinder Formation 373 15.3.2 Evolution in the Exhaust and Aftertreatment Systems 375 15.3.3 Noncombustion Particle Sources 375 15.3.4 Evolution in the Environment 376 15.4 Impact of Vehicle Particle Emissions 376 15.4.1 Health and Environmental Effects 376 15.4.2 Legislation 376 15.5 Sampling and Measurement Techniques 378 15.5.1 Sample Handling 378 15.5.2 Mass Measurement 379 15.5.3 Solid-Particle-Number Measurement 380 15.5.4 Sizing Techniques 382 15.5.5 Morphology Determination 382 15.6 Amelioration Techniques 385 15.6.1 Fuel Composition 385 15.6.2 Control by Engine Design and Calibration 385 15.6.3 Particulate Filters 386 Acknowledgements 388 References 388 16. Movement of Bioaerosols in the Atmosphere and the Consequences for Climate and Microbial Evolution 393 Cindy E. Morris, Christel Leyronas, and Philippe C. Nicot 16.1 Introduction 393 16.2 Emission: Launch into the Atmosphere 395 16.2.1 Active Release 397 16.2.2 Passive Release 397 16.2.3 Quantifying Emissions 398 16.3 Transport in the Earth's Boundary Layer 399 16.3.1 Motors of Transport 399 16.3.2 Quantifying Near-Surface Flux 400 16.4 Long-Distance Transport: From the Boundary Layer into the Free Troposphere 404 16.4.1 Scale of Horizontal Long-Distance Transport 404 16.4.2 Altitude of Long-Distance Transport 405 16.5 Interaction of Microbial Aerosols with Atmospheric Processes 406 16.6 Implications of Aerial Transport for Microbial Evolutionary History 407 References 410 17. Disinfection of Airborne Organisms by Ultraviolet-C Radiation and Sunlight 417 Jana S. Kesavan and Jose-Luis Sagripanti 17.1 Introduction 417 17.2 UV Radiation 418 17.3 Sunlight 419 17.4 Selected Organisms 421 17.4.1 Bacterial Endospores 421 17.4.2 Vegetative Bacteria 422 17.4.3 Viruses 423 17.5 Effects of UV Light on Aerosolized Organisms 423 17.5.1 Cell Damage Caused By UV Radiation 423 17.5.2 Photorepair 424 17.5.3 Typical Survival Curve for UV Exposure 425 17.5.4 The UV Rate Constant 427 17.5.5 RH and Temperature Effects 428 17.5.6 Bacterial Clusters 429 17.6 Disinfection of Rooms Using UV-C Radiation 429 17.7 Sunlight Exposure Studies 430 17.8 Testing Considerations 431 17.8.1 Test Methodology in Our Laboratory 432 17.9 Discussion 435 References 435 18. Radioactive Aerosols: Tracers of Atmospheric Processes 441 Katsumi Hirose 18.1 Introduction 441 18.2 Origin of Radioactive Aerosols 442 18.2.1 Natural Radionuclides 442 18.2.2 Anthropogenic Radionuclides 444 18.3 Tracers of Atmospheric Processes 446 18.3.1 Transport of Radioactive Aerosols 446 18.3.2 Dry Deposition 448 18.3.3 Wet Deposition 449 18.3.4 Resuspension 450 18.3.5 Other Processes 452 18.3.6 Application of Multitracers 452 18.3.7 Atmospheric Residence Time of Radioactive Aerosols 454 18.4 Tracer of Environmental Change 457 18.5 Conclusion 460 References 461 Index 469

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