CiNii 図書 - Handbook of measurement in science and engineering

A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications Volume 1 "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." Lord Kelvin Measurement falls at the heart of any engineering discipline and job function. Whether engineers are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful, useful data. The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering measurements beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 1 spans several disciplines Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, and Industrial Engineering and covers: New Measurement Techniques in Structural Health Monitoring Traffic Congestion Management Measurements in Environmental Engineering Dimensions, Surfaces, and Their Measurement Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement Vibration Measurement Temperature Measurement Force Measurement Heat Transfer Measurements for Non-Boiling Two-Phase Flow Solar Energy Measurements Human Movement Measurements Physiological Flow Measurements GIS and Computer Mapping Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges Hydrology Measurements Mobile Source Emissions Testing Mass Properties Measurement Resistive Strain Measurement Devices Acoustics Measurements Pressure and Velocity Measurements Heat Flux Measurement Wind Energy Measurements Flow Measurement Statistical Quality Control Industrial Energy Efficiency Industrial Waste Auditing Vital for engineers, scientists, and technical managers in industry and government, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering will also prove ideal for members of major engineering associations and academics and researchers at universities and laboratories.

VOLUME 1 PREFACE xxiii CONTRIBUTORS xxvii PART I CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1 1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3 Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Glisic, and Johan Silfwerbrand 1.1 Introduction, 5 1.2 Background, 6 1.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 8 1.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 16 1.5 Acoustic Emission, 24 1.6 Radar Technology, 27 1.7 Global Positioning System, 31 1.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 33 1.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 35 1.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 37 1.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 41 1.12 System Procurement and Installation, 44 1.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47 1.14 Discussion, 67 1.15 Conclusion, 69 Acknowledgments, 70 References, 71 2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79 Gary S. Spring 2.1 Introduction, 79 2.2 Background, 80 2.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 81 2.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 96 2.5 Implementation Issues, 97 2.6 Conclusion, 100 References, 102 3 Traffic Congestion Management 105 Nagui M. Rouphail 3.1 Introduction and Background, 105 3.2 Scope of the Chapter, 106 3.3 Organization of the Chapter, 107 3.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 107 3.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 112 3.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 119 3.7 Summary, 128 Acknowledgments, 129 References, 129 4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133 Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan 4.1 Introduction, 133 4.2 Similitude Requirements, 134 4.3 Specimen Fabrication, 141 4.4 Input Motion, 148 4.5 Instrumentation, 150 4.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 155 4.7 Results, 157 References, 158 5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159 Daniel A. Vallero 5.1 Introduction, 159 5.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 166 5.3 Laboratory Analysis, 169 5.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183 5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 186 5.6 Environmental Indicators, 191 5.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 199 5.8 Summary, 200 Nomenclature, 200 References, 202 6 Hydrology Measurements 205 Todd C. Rasmussen 6.1 Introduction, 206 6.2 Precipitation, 209 6.3 Evapotranspiration, 212 6.4 Surface Flow, 216 6.5 Groundwater, 219 6.6 Soil Water, 223 6.7 Water Quality, 226 Suggested Readings, 231 7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233 Mohan Venigalla 7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234 References, 240 PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241 8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243 Mikell P. Groover 8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 244 8.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 245 8.3 Surfaces, 254 References, 256 9 Mass Properties Measurement 259 David Tellet 9.1 Introduction, 260 9.2 Mass and Weight, 262 9.3 Measurement Methodology, 264 9.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 274 9.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 275 9.6 MOI Measurement, 280 9.7 POI Measurement, 284 9.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 287 9.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292 References, 300 10 Force Measurement 301 Patrick Collins 10.1 Introduction, 302 10.2 Force Transducers, 303 10.3 Universal Testing Machines, 306 10.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 307 10.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 311 10.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 314 10.7 Dynamometers, 317 10.8 Optical Force Transducers, 317 10.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 320 10.10 Force Balance Transducers, 321 10.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 321 10.12 Calibration, 323 10.13 Conclusion, 329 Glossary of Terms, 329 References, 340 11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343 Mark Tuttle 11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 343 11.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 349 11.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 363 11.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365 References, 366 12 Vibration Measurement 367 Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar 12.1 Introduction, 367 12.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 369 12.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response Function, 373 12.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 388 12.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 405 12.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423 Nomenclature, 428 References, 431 13 Acoustical Measurements 433 Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt 13.1 Introduction, 434 13.2 Fundamental Measures, 436 13.3 Microphones, 445 13.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 451 13.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 454 13.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457 13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 463 13.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 465 13.9 Sound Power Measurements, 472 13.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476 References, 479 14 Temperature Measurement 483 Peter R. N. Childs Summary, 484 14.1 Introduction, 484 14.2 Selection, 487 14.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 489 14.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 511 14.5 Noninvasive Methods, 514 14.6 Conclusions, 519 Nomenclature, 519 References, 521 15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527 Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley 15.1 Pressure Concepts, 528 15.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 530 15.3 Pressure Transducers, 536 15.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 543 15.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 544 15.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 548 15.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 548 15.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552 Nomenclature, 563 References, 564 16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567 Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri 16.1 Introduction, 567 16.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 569 16.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 571 16.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 572 16.5 Measurement Methods, 574 16.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588 Acknowledgments, 611 References, 612 17 Flow Measurement 615 Jesse Yoder 17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 616 17.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627 Further Readings, 628 18 Heat Flux Measurement 629 Thomas E. Diller 18.1 Introduction, 630 18.2 Important Issues, 631 18.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 634 18.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 643 18.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 648 18.6 Calibration and Errors, 653 References, 655 19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661 Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang 19.1 Introduction, 661 19.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 662 19.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 666 19.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 667 19.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 670 19.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 673 19.7 Concluding Remarks, 682 Nomenclature, 683 References, 684 20 Solar Energy Measurements 687 Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham 20.1 Introduction, 688 20.2 Measurement Equipment, 694 20.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 703 20.4 Operational Errors, 704 20.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 704 20.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 711 20.7 Modern Developments, 711 20.8 Data Quality Assessment, 714 20.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 716 20.10 Outlier Analysis, 722 Acknowledgments, 722 References, 723 21 Wind Energy Measurements 727 Peter Gregg 21.1 Introduction, 728 21.2 Concepts, 728 21.3 Measurements, 731 21.4 Evaluation, 739 References, 747 22 Human Movement Measurements 749 Rahman Davoodi 22.1 Introduction, 749 22.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 750 22.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 751 22.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 754 22.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 756 22.6 Discussion, 761 Acknowledgment, 762 References, 762 23 Flow Measurement 765 Arnold A. Fontaine, Keefe B. Manning, and Steven Deutsch 23.1 Introduction, 765 23.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768 References, 799 PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803 24 Statistical Quality Control 805 Magd E. Zohdi 24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 805 24.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 805 24.3 Quality Control, 806 24.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 812 24.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 812 24.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 812 24.7 Acceptance Sampling, 815 24.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817 Further Readings, 817 25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819 Hans J. Thamhain 25.1 Management Perspective, 819 25.2 Quantitative Approaches, 821 25.3 Qualitative Approaches, 826 25.4 Recommendations, 828 Variables and Abbreviations, 831 References, 831 26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833 Walter W. Olson 26.1 Introduction, 833 26.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 834 26.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835 26.4 System Effects on ECM, 838 26.5 Assessment, 840 26.6 Summary, 844 References, 845 27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847 Alan Cross 27.1 Introduction, 847 27.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control Instrumentation, 848 27.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851 References, 858 28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859 B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, and S. Chaudhari 28.1 Introduction, 860 28.2 Literature Review, 863 28.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 864 28.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming Equipment, 872 28.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 879 28.6 Conclusion, 881 Acknowledgments, 881 References, 881 29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885 C. Visvanathan 29.1 Overview, 885 29.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 886 29.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 888 29.4 Waste Auditing, 890 29.5 Conclusion, 909 Further Readings, 910 30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911 Jennifer A. Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens 30.1 Introduction, 911 30.2 Summary, 940 References, 940 INDEX

The most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering measurements covering all major engineering disciplines, Handbook of Engineering Measurements, Set provides a multidisciplinary resource of engineering measurement theory, necessary tools, techniques of measurement and analysis, and applications. Encyclopedic in scope, beyond anything currently available on the market, Volume 1 covers civil and environmental engineering, mechanical and biomedical engineering, and industrial engineering; Volume II covers and spans materials properties and testing, instrumentation, and measurement standards.

VOLUME 1 PREFACE xxiii CONTRIBUTORS xxvii PART I CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1 1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3 Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Glisic, and Johan Silfwerbrand 1.1 Introduction, 5 1.2 Background, 6 1.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 8 1.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 16 1.5 Acoustic Emission, 24 1.6 Radar Technology, 27 1.7 Global Positioning System, 31 1.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 33 1.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 35 1.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 37 1.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 41 1.12 System Procurement and Installation, 44 1.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47 1.14 Discussion, 67 1.15 Conclusion, 69 Acknowledgments, 70 References, 71 2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79 Gary S. Spring 2.1 Introduction, 79 2.2 Background, 80 2.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 81 2.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 96 2.5 Implementation Issues, 97 2.6 Conclusion, 100 References, 102 3 Traffic Congestion Management 105 Nagui M. Rouphail 3.1 Introduction and Background, 105 3.2 Scope of the Chapter, 106 3.3 Organization of the Chapter, 107 3.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 107 3.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 112 3.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 119 3.7 Summary, 128 Acknowledgments, 129 References, 129 4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133 Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan 4.1 Introduction, 133 4.2 Similitude Requirements, 134 4.3 Specimen Fabrication, 141 4.4 Input Motion, 148 4.5 Instrumentation, 150 4.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 155 4.7 Results, 157 References, 158 5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159 Daniel A. Vallero 5.1 Introduction, 159 5.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 166 5.3 Laboratory Analysis, 169 5.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183 5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 186 5.6 Environmental Indicators, 191 5.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 199 5.8 Summary, 200 Nomenclature, 200 References, 202 6 Hydrology Measurements 205 Todd C. Rasmussen 6.1 Introduction, 206 6.2 Precipitation, 209 6.3 Evapotranspiration, 212 6.4 Surface Flow, 216 6.5 Groundwater, 219 6.6 Soil Water, 223 6.7 Water Quality, 226 Suggested Readings, 231 7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233 Mohan Venigalla 7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234 References, 240 PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241 8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243 Mikell P. Groover 8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 244 8.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 245 8.3 Surfaces, 254 References, 256 9 Mass Properties Measurement 259 David Tellet 9.1 Introduction, 260 9.2 Mass and Weight, 262 9.3 Measurement Methodology, 264 9.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 274 9.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 275 9.6 MOI Measurement, 280 9.7 POI Measurement, 284 9.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 287 9.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292 References, 300 10 Force Measurement 301 Patrick Collins 10.1 Introduction, 302 10.2 Force Transducers, 303 10.3 Universal Testing Machines, 306 10.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 307 10.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 311 10.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 314 10.7 Dynamometers, 317 10.8 Optical Force Transducers, 317 10.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 320 10.10 Force Balance Transducers, 321 10.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 321 10.12 Calibration, 323 10.13 Conclusion, 329 Glossary of Terms, 329 References, 340 11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343 Mark Tuttle 11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 343 11.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 349 11.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 363 11.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365 References, 366 12 Vibration Measurement 367 Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar 12.1 Introduction, 367 12.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 369 12.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response Function, 373 12.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 388 12.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 405 12.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423 Nomenclature, 428 References, 431 13 Acoustical Measurements 433 Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt 13.1 Introduction, 434 13.2 Fundamental Measures, 436 13.3 Microphones, 445 13.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 451 13.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 454 13.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457 13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 463 13.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 465 13.9 Sound Power Measurements, 472 13.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476 References, 479 14 Temperature Measurement 483 Peter R. N. Childs Summary, 484 14.1 Introduction, 484 14.2 Selection, 487 14.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 489 14.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 511 14.5 Noninvasive Methods, 514 14.6 Conclusions, 519 Nomenclature, 519 References, 521 15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527 Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley 15.1 Pressure Concepts, 528 15.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 530 15.3 Pressure Transducers, 536 15.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 543 15.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 544 15.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 548 15.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 548 15.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552 Nomenclature, 563 References, 564 16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567 Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri 16.1 Introduction, 567 16.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 569 16.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 571 16.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 572 16.5 Measurement Methods, 574 16.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588 Acknowledgments, 611 References, 612 17 Flow Measurement 615 Jesse Yoder 17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 616 17.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627 Further Readings, 628 18 Heat Flux Measurement 629 Thomas E. Diller 18.1 Introduction, 630 18.2 Important Issues, 631 18.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 634 18.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 643 18.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 648 18.6 Calibration and Errors, 653 References, 655 19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661 Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang 19.1 Introduction, 661 19.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 662 19.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 666 19.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 667 19.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 670 19.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 673 19.7 Concluding Remarks, 682 Nomenclature, 683 References, 684 20 Solar Energy Measurements 687 Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham 20.1 Introduction, 688 20.2 Measurement Equipment, 694 20.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 703 20.4 Operational Errors, 704 20.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 704 20.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 711 20.7 Modern Developments, 711 20.8 Data Quality Assessment, 714 20.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 716 20.10 Outlier Analysis, 722 Acknowledgments, 722 References, 723 21 Wind Energy Measurements 727 Peter Gregg 21.1 Introduction, 728 21.2 Concepts, 728 21.3 Measurements, 731 21.4 Evaluation, 739 References, 747 22 Human Movement Measurements 749 Rahman Davoodi 22.1 Introduction, 749 22.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 750 22.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 751 22.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 754 22.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 756 22.6 Discussion, 761 Acknowledgment, 762 References, 762 23 Flow Measurement 765 Arnold A. Fontaine, Keefe B. Manning, and Steven Deutsch 23.1 Introduction, 765 23.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768 References, 799 PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803 24 Statistical Quality Control 805 Magd E. Zohdi 24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 805 24.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 805 24.3 Quality Control, 806 24.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 812 24.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 812 24.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 812 24.7 Acceptance Sampling, 815 24.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817 Further Readings, 817 25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819 Hans J. Thamhain 25.1 Management Perspective, 819 25.2 Quantitative Approaches, 821 25.3 Qualitative Approaches, 826 25.4 Recommendations, 828 Variables and Abbreviations, 831 References, 831 26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833 Walter W. Olson 26.1 Introduction, 833 26.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 834 26.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835 26.4 System Effects on ECM, 838 26.5 Assessment, 840 26.6 Summary, 844 References, 845 27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847 Alan Cross 27.1 Introduction, 847 27.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control Instrumentation, 848 27.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851 References, 858 28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859 B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, and S. Chaudhari 28.1 Introduction, 860 28.2 Literature Review, 863 28.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 864 28.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming Equipment, 872 28.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 879 28.6 Conclusion, 881 Acknowledgments, 881 References, 881 29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885 C. Visvanathan 29.1 Overview, 885 29.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 886 29.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 888 29.4 Waste Auditing, 890 29.5 Conclusion, 909 Further Readings, 910 30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911 Jennifer A. Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens 30.1 Introduction, 911 30.2 Summary, 940 References, 940 INDEX VOLUME 2 PART IV MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING 945 31 Viscosity Measurement 947 Ann M. Anderson, Bradford A. Bruno, and Lilla Safford Smith 31.1 Viscosity Background, 947 31.2 Common Units of Viscosity, 949 31.3 Major Viscosity Measurement Methods, 959 31.4 ASTM Standards for Measuring Viscosity, 974 31.5 Questions to Ask When Selecting a Viscosity Measurement Technique, 976 References, 979 32 Tribology Measurements 981 Prasanta Sahoo 32.1 Introduction, 982 32.2 Measurement of Surface Roughness, 983 32.3 Measurement of Friction, 988 32.4 Measurement of Wear, 992 32.5 Measurement of Test Environment, 994 32.6 Measurement of Material Characteristics, 998 32.7 Measurement of Lubricant Characteristics, 1001 32.8 Wear Particle Analysis, 1004 32.9 Industrial Measurements, 1005 32.10 Summary, 1006 33 Corrosion Monitoring 1007 Pierre R. Roberge 33.1 What is Corrosion Monitoring?, 1007 33.2 The Role of Corrosion Monitoring, 1008 33.3 Corrosion Monitoring System Considerations, 1010 References, 1116 34 Surface Properties Measurement 1121 Mrinalini Mulukutla and Sandip P. Harimkar 34.1 Introduction, 1121 34.2 Surface Properties, 1122 34.3 Microstructural Analysis, 1125 34.4 Compositional Analysis, 1128 34.5 Phase Analysis, 1130 34.6 Mechanical Testing, 1131 34.7 Corrosion Properties, 1141 34.8 Standards for Surface Engineering Measurement, 1145 References, 1147 35 Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials 1151 Juergen Blumm 35.1 Introduction, 1151 35.2 Stationary Methods for Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1157 35.3 Transient Methods for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1163 35.4 Test Results on Various Engineering Materials, 1173 References, 1188 36 Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity 1189 Prabhakar R. Bandaru and Max S. Aubain 36.1 Thermal Boundary Resistance May Limit Accuracy in Contact-Based Thermal Conductivity (k) Measurements, 1189 36.2 Optical Measurements of k May Avoid Contact-Related Issues, 1192 36.3 Thermoreflectance (TR), 1196 36.4 Characteristics of Thermoreflectance from Si Thin Films-Modeling and Calibration, 1199 36.5 Experimental Procedures, 1202 36.6 Results and Discussion, 1204 36.7 Summary and Outlook, 1208 Acknowledgments, 1209 References, 1209 37 Selection of Metals for Structural Design 1213 Matthew J. Donachie 37.1 Introduction, 1214 37.2 Common Alloy Systems, 1215 37.3 What are Alloys and What Affects their Use?, 1215 37.4 What are the Properties of Alloys and How are Alloys Strengthened?, 1218 37.5 Manufacture of Alloy Articles, 1221 37.6 Alloy Information, 1221 37.7 Metals at Lower Temperatures, 1231 37.8 Metals at High Temperatures, 1233 37.9 Melting and Casting Practices, 1236 37.10 Forging, Forming, Powder Metallurgy, and Joining of Alloys, 1242 37.11 Surface Protection of Materials, 1245 37.12 Postservice Refurbishment and Repair, 1248 37.13 Alloy Selection: A Look at Possibilities, 1249 37.14 Level of Property Data, 1252 37.15 Thoughts on Alloy Systems, 1252 37.16 Selected Alloy Information Sources, 1259 Further Readings, 1261 38 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 1263 Daniel Liu, Jackie Rehkopf, and Maureen Reitman 38.1 Microstructure and Morphology of Polymers-Amorphous Versus Crystalline, 1264 38.2 General Stress-Strain Behavior, 1265 38.3 Viscoelasticity, 1271 38.4 Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 1272 38.5 Time-Temperature Dependence, 1274 38.6 Deformation Mechanisms, 1274 38.7 Crazing, 1277 38.8 Fracture, 1279 38.9 Modifying Mechanical Properties, 1284 38.10 Load-Bearing Applications: Creep, Fatigue Resistance, and High Strain Rate Behavior, 1285 References, 1290 39 Electrical Properties of Polymers 1291 Evaristo Riande and Ricardo Diaz-Calleja 39.1 Introductory Remarks, 1291 39.2 Polarity and Permittivity, 1292 39.3 Measurements of Dielectric Permittivity, 1293 39.4 Polarization and Dipole Moments in Isotropic Systems, 1297 39.5 Thermostimulated Depolarization Currents, 1316 39.6 Conductivity in Polyelectrolytes and Polymer-Electrolytes as Separators for Low Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrical Batteries, 1318 39.7 Semiconductors and Electronic Conducting Polymers, 1324 39.8 Ferroelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Piezoelectricity in Polymers, 1328 39.9 Nonlinear Polarization in Polymers, 1331 39.10 Elastomers for Actuators and Sensors, 1333 39.11 Electrical Breakdown in Polymers, 1336 References, 1338 40 Nondestructive Inspection 1343 Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp 40.1 Introduction, 1344 40.2 Liquid Penetrants, 1347 40.3 Radiography, 1351 40.4 Ultrasonic Methods, 1361 40.5 Magnetic Particle Method, 1370 40.6 Thermal Methods, 1373 40.7 Eddy Current Methods, 1375 References, 1410 41 Testing of Metallic Materials 1413 Peter C. McKeighan 41.1 Mechanical Test Laboratory, 1414 41.2 Tensile and Compressive Property Testing, 1418 41.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation Testing, 1420 41.4 Hardness and Impact Testing, 1422 41.5 Fracture Toughness Testing, 1425 41.6 Fatigue Testing, 1429 41.7 Other Mechanical Testing, 1433 41.8 Environmental Considerations, 1434 Acknowledgments, 1436 References, 1436 42 Ceramics Testing 1437 Shawn K. McGuire and Michael G. Jenkins 42.1 Introduction, 1437 42.2 Mechanical Testing, 1438 42.3 Thermal Testing, 1451 42.4 Nondestructive Evaluation Testing, 1458 42.5 Electrical Testing, 1460 42.6 Summary, 1461 References, 1461 43 Plastics Testing 1463 Vishu Shah 43.1 Introduction, 1464 43.2 Mechanical Properties, 1464 43.3 Thermal Properties, 1481 43.4 Electrical Properties, 1484 43.5 Weathering Properties, 1488 43.6 Optical Properties, 1492 Further Readings, 1496 44 Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing: Key Characterization Techniques 1499 Maria del Pilar Noriega 44.1 FTIR Spectroscopy, 1499 44.2 Chromatography (GC, GC-MSD, GC-FID, and HPLC), 1500 44.3 DSC and Thermogravimetry (TGA), 1510 44.4 Rheometry, 1518 References, 1527 45 Analytical Tools for Estimation of Particulate Composite Material Properties 1529 Tarek I. Zohdi and Magd E. Zohdi 45.1 Introduction, 1529 45.2 Concepts in Statistical Quality Control, 1530 45.3 Effective Property Estimates, 1531 45.4 Summary, 1535 References, 1537 PART V INSTRUMENTATION 1539 46 Instrument Statics 1541 Jerry Lee Hall, Sriram Sundararajan, and Mahmood Naim 46.1 Terminology, 1541 46.2 Static Calibration, 1544 46.3 Statistics in the Measurement Process, 1547 References, 1570 47 Input and Output Characteristics 1573 Adam C. Bell 47.1 Introduction, 1574 47.2 Familiar Examples of Input-Output Interactions, 1575 47.3 Energy, Power, Impedance, 1578 47.4 Operating Point of Static Systems, 1586 47.5 Transforming the Operating Point, 1598 47.6 Measurement Systems, 1602 47.7 Distributed Systems in Brief, 1607 47.8 Concluding Remarks, 1609 References, 1610 48 Bridge Transducers 1611 Patrick L. Walter 48.1 Terminology, 1612 48.2 Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems, 1612 48.3 The Resistance Strain Gage, 1615 48.4 The Wheatstone Bridge, 1625 48.5 Resistance Bridge Balance Methods, 1634 48.6 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Calibration, 1636 48.7 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Considerations, 1646 48.8 AC Impedance Bridge Transducers, 1655 References, 1660 Further Readings, 1661 49 Signal Processing 1663 John Turnbull 49.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Systems, 1663 49.2 Basic Analog Filters, 1666 49.3 Basic Digital Filter, 1672 49.4 Stability and Phase Analysis, 1680 49.5 Extracting Signal from Noise, 1682 References, 1683 50 Data Acquisition and Display Systems 1685 Philip C. Milliman 50.1 Introduction, 1686 50.2 Data Acquisition, 1687 50.3 Process Data Acquisition, 1688 50.4 Data Conditioning, 1691 50.5 Data Storage, 1699 50.6 Data Display and Reporting, 1704 50.7 Data Analysis, 1707 50.8 Data Communications, 1708 50.9 Other Data Acquisition and Display Topics, 1712 50.10 Summary, 1715 References, 1715 PART VI MEASUREMENT STANDARDS 1517 51 Mathematical and Physical Units, Standards, and Tables 1719 Jack H. Westbrook 51.1 Symbols and Abbreviations, 1720 Bibliography for Letter Symbols, 1731 Bibliography for Graphic Symbols, 1737 51.2 Mathematical Tables, 1742 51.3 Statistical Tables, 1765 51.4 Units and Standards, 1775 Bibliography for Units and Measurements, 1802 51.5 Tables of Conversion Factors, 1802 51.6 Standard Sizes, 1833 51.7 Standard Screws, 1886 52 Measurement Uncertainty 1911 David Clippinger 52.1 Introduction, 1911 52.2 Literature, 1914 52.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty, 1915 52.4 Discussion, 1924 Disclaimer, 1924 References, 1925 53 Measurements 1927 E. L. Hixson and E. A. Ripperger 53.1 Standards and Accuracy, 1927 53.2 Impedance Concepts, 1930 53.3 Error Analysis, 1935 References, 1942 INDEX I-1

A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications Volume 2 "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." Lord Kelvin Measurement falls at the heart of any engineering discipline and job function. Whether engineers are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful, useful data. The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering measurements beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 2 spans several disciplines Materials Properties and Testing, Instrumentation, and Measurement Standards and covers: Viscosity Measurement Corrosion Monitoring Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity Properties of Metals and Alloys Electrical Properties of Polymers Testing of Metallic Materials Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing Analytical Tools for Estimation of ParticulateComposite Material Properties Input and Output Characteristics Measurement Standards and Accuracy Tribology Measurements Surface Properties Measurement Plastics Testing Mechanical Properties of Polymers Nondestructive Inspection Ceramics Testing Instrument Statics Signal Processing Bridge Transducers Units and Standards Measurement Uncertainty Data Acquisition and Display Systems Vital for engineers, scientists, and technical managers in industry and government, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering will also prove ideal for members of major engineering associations and academics and researchers at universities and laboratories.

VOLUME 2 PREFACE xxiii CONTRIBUTORS xxvii PART IV MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING 945 31 Viscosity Measurement 947 Ann M. Anderson, Bradford A. Bruno, and Lilla Safford Smith 31.1 Viscosity Background, 947 31.2 Common Units of Viscosity, 949 31.3 Major Viscosity Measurement Methods, 959 31.4 ASTM Standards for Measuring Viscosity, 974 31.5 Questions to Ask When Selecting a Viscosity Measurement Technique, 976 References, 979 32 Tribology Measurements 981 Prasanta Sahoo 32.1 Introduction, 982 32.2 Measurement of Surface Roughness, 983 32.3 Measurement of Friction, 988 32.4 Measurement of Wear, 992 32.5 Measurement of Test Environment, 994 32.6 Measurement of Material Characteristics, 998 32.7 Measurement of Lubricant Characteristics, 1001 32.8 Wear Particle Analysis, 1004 32.9 Industrial Measurements, 1005 32.10 Summary, 1006 33 Corrosion Monitoring 1007 Pierre R. Roberge 33.1 What is Corrosion Monitoring?, 1007 33.2 The Role of Corrosion Monitoring, 1008 33.3 Corrosion Monitoring System Considerations, 1010 References, 1116 34 Surface Properties Measurement 1121 Mrinalini Mulukutla and Sandip P. Harimkar 34.1 Introduction, 1121 34.2 Surface Properties, 1122 34.3 Microstructural Analysis, 1125 34.4 Compositional Analysis, 1128 34.5 Phase Analysis, 1130 34.6 Mechanical Testing, 1131 34.7 Corrosion Properties, 1141 34.8 Standards for Surface Engineering Measurement, 1145 References, 1147 35 Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials 1151 Juergen Blumm 35.1 Introduction, 1151 35.2 Stationary Methods for Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1157 35.3 Transient Methods for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1163 35.4 Test Results on Various Engineering Materials, 1173 References, 1188 36 Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity 1189 Prabhakar R. Bandaru and Max S. Aubain 36.1 Thermal Boundary Resistance May Limit Accuracy in Contact-Based Thermal Conductivity (k) Measurements, 1189 36.2 Optical Measurements of k May Avoid Contact-Related Issues, 1192 36.3 Thermoreflectance (TR), 1196 36.4 Characteristics of Thermoreflectance from Si Thin Films-Modeling and Calibration, 1199 36.5 Experimental Procedures, 1202 36.6 Results and Discussion, 1204 36.7 Summary and Outlook, 1208 Acknowledgments, 1209 References, 1209 37 Selection of Metals for Structural Design 1213 Matthew J. Donachie 37.1 Introduction, 1214 37.2 Common Alloy Systems, 1215 37.3 What are Alloys and What Affects their Use?, 1215 37.4 What are the Properties of Alloys and How are Alloys Strengthened?, 1218 37.5 Manufacture of Alloy Articles, 1221 37.6 Alloy Information, 1221 37.7 Metals at Lower Temperatures, 1231 37.8 Metals at High Temperatures, 1233 37.9 Melting and Casting Practices, 1236 37.10 Forging, Forming, Powder Metallurgy, and Joining of Alloys, 1242 37.11 Surface Protection of Materials, 1245 37.12 Postservice Refurbishment and Repair, 1248 37.13 Alloy Selection: A Look at Possibilities, 1249 37.14 Level of Property Data, 1252 37.15 Thoughts on Alloy Systems, 1252 37.16 Selected Alloy Information Sources, 1259 Further Readings, 1261 38 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 1263 Daniel Liu, Jackie Rehkopf, and Maureen Reitman 38.1 Microstructure and Morphology of Polymers-Amorphous Versus Crystalline, 1264 38.2 General Stress-Strain Behavior, 1265 38.3 Viscoelasticity, 1271 38.4 Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 1272 38.5 Time-Temperature Dependence, 1274 38.6 Deformation Mechanisms, 1274 38.7 Crazing, 1277 38.8 Fracture, 1279 38.9 Modifying Mechanical Properties, 1284 38.10 Load-Bearing Applications: Creep, Fatigue Resistance, and High Strain Rate Behavior, 1285 References, 1290 39 Electrical Properties of Polymers 1291 Evaristo Riande and Ricardo Diaz-Calleja 39.1 Introductory Remarks, 1291 39.2 Polarity and Permittivity, 1292 39.3 Measurements of Dielectric Permittivity, 1293 39.4 Polarization and Dipole Moments in Isotropic Systems, 1297 39.5 Thermostimulated Depolarization Currents, 1316 39.6 Conductivity in Polyelectrolytes and Polymer-Electrolytes as Separators for Low Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrical Batteries, 1318 39.7 Semiconductors and Electronic Conducting Polymers, 1324 39.8 Ferroelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Piezoelectricity in Polymers, 1328 39.9 Nonlinear Polarization in Polymers, 1331 39.10 Elastomers for Actuators and Sensors, 1333 39.11 Electrical Breakdown in Polymers, 1336 References, 1338 40 Nondestructive Inspection 1343 Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp 40.1 Introduction, 1344 40.2 Liquid Penetrants, 1347 40.3 Radiography, 1351 40.4 Ultrasonic Methods, 1361 40.5 Magnetic Particle Method, 1370 40.6 Thermal Methods, 1373 40.7 Eddy Current Methods, 1375 References, 1410 41 Testing of Metallic Materials 1413 Peter C. McKeighan 41.1 Mechanical Test Laboratory, 1414 41.2 Tensile and Compressive Property Testing, 1418 41.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation Testing, 1420 41.4 Hardness and Impact Testing, 1422 41.5 Fracture Toughness Testing, 1425 41.6 Fatigue Testing, 1429 41.7 Other Mechanical Testing, 1433 41.8 Environmental Considerations, 1434 Acknowledgments, 1436 References, 1436 42 Ceramics Testing 1437 Shawn K. McGuire and Michael G. Jenkins 42.1 Introduction, 1437 42.2 Mechanical Testing, 1438 42.3 Thermal Testing, 1451 42.4 Nondestructive Evaluation Testing, 1458 42.5 Electrical Testing, 1460 42.6 Summary, 1461 References, 1461 43 Plastics Testing 1463 Vishu Shah 43.1 Introduction, 1464 43.2 Mechanical Properties, 1464 43.3 Thermal Properties, 1481 43.4 Electrical Properties, 1484 43.5 Weathering Properties, 1488 43.6 Optical Properties, 1492 Further Readings, 1496 44 Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing: Key Characterization Techniques 1499 Maria del Pilar Noriega 44.1 FTIR Spectroscopy, 1499 44.2 Chromatography (GC, GC-MSD, GC-FID, and HPLC), 1500 44.3 DSC and Thermogravimetry (TGA), 1510 44.4 Rheometry, 1518 References, 1527 45 Analytical Tools for Estimation of Particulate Composite Material Properties 1529 Tarek I. Zohdi and Magd E. Zohdi 45.1 Introduction, 1529 45.2 Concepts in Statistical Quality Control, 1530 45.3 Effective Property Estimates, 1531 45.4 Summary, 1535 References, 1537 PART V INSTRUMENTATION 1539 46 Instrument Statics 1541 Jerry Lee Hall, Sriram Sundararajan, and Mahmood Naim 46.1 Terminology, 1541 46.2 Static Calibration, 1544 46.3 Statistics in the Measurement Process, 1547 References, 1570 47 Input and Output Characteristics 1573 Adam C. Bell 47.1 Introduction, 1574 47.2 Familiar Examples of Input-Output Interactions, 1575 47.3 Energy, Power, Impedance, 1578 47.4 Operating Point of Static Systems, 1586 47.5 Transforming the Operating Point, 1598 47.6 Measurement Systems, 1602 47.7 Distributed Systems in Brief, 1607 47.8 Concluding Remarks, 1609 References, 1610 48 Bridge Transducers 1611 Patrick L. Walter 48.1 Terminology, 1612 48.2 Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems, 1612 48.3 The Resistance Strain Gage, 1615 48.4 The Wheatstone Bridge, 1625 48.5 Resistance Bridge Balance Methods, 1634 48.6 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Calibration, 1636 48.7 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Considerations, 1646 48.8 AC Impedance Bridge Transducers, 1655 References, 1660 Further Readings, 1661 49 Signal Processing 1663 John Turnbull 49.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Systems, 1663 49.2 Basic Analog Filters, 1666 49.3 Basic Digital Filter, 1672 49.4 Stability and Phase Analysis, 1680 49.5 Extracting Signal from Noise, 1682 References, 1683 50 Data Acquisition and Display Systems 1685 Philip C. Milliman 50.1 Introduction, 1686 50.2 Data Acquisition, 1687 50.3 Process Data Acquisition, 1688 50.4 Data Conditioning, 1691 50.5 Data Storage, 1699 50.6 Data Display and Reporting, 1704 50.7 Data Analysis, 1707 50.8 Data Communications, 1708 50.9 Other Data Acquisition and Display Topics, 1712 50.10 Summary, 1715 References, 1715 PART VI MEASUREMENT STANDARDS 1517 51 Mathematical and Physical Units, Standards, and Tables 1719 Jack H. Westbrook 51.1 Symbols and Abbreviations, 1720 Bibliography for Letter Symbols, 1731 Bibliography for Graphic Symbols, 1737 51.2 Mathematical Tables, 1742 51.3 Statistical Tables, 1765 51.4 Units and Standards, 1775 Bibliography for Units and Measurements, 1802 51.5 Tables of Conversion Factors, 1802 51.6 Standard Sizes, 1833 51.7 Standard Screws, 1886 52 Measurement Uncertainty 1911 David Clippinger 52.1 Introduction, 1911 52.2 Literature, 1914 52.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty, 1915 52.4 Discussion, 1924 Disclaimer, 1924 References, 1925 53 Measurements 1927 E. L. Hixson and E. A. Ripperger 53.1 Standards and Accuracy, 1927 53.2 Impedance Concepts, 1930 53.3 Error Analysis, 1935 References, 1942 INDEX I-1

A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications "When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." - Lord Kelvin Measurement is at the heart of any engineering and scientific discipline and job function. Whether engineers and scientists are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful data. The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering and scientific measurements-beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 3 covers measurements in physics, electrical engineering and chemistry: Laser Measurement Techniques Magnetic Force Images using Capacitive Coupling Effect Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Measurement of Light and Color The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement Cryogenic Measurements Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems Electric Power and Energy Measurement Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins Fluorescence Spectroscopy X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy Nanomaterials Properties Chemical Sensing Vital for engineers, scientists, and technical managers in industry and government, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering will also prove ideal for academics and researchers at universities and laboratories.

VOLUME 3 List of Contributors xxi PREFACE xxv Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945 Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles 54.1 Introduction, 1945 54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945 54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946 54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951 54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped Far-Infrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956 54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959 54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962 54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965 54.2 Laser Measurements: Laser-Based Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965 54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966 54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967 54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970 54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971 54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972 54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974 54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974 54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975 54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981 54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985 54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987 54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990 54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996 54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001 Byung I. Kim 55.1 Introduction, 2001 55.2 Experiment, 2004 55.2.1 Principle, 2004 55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004 55.2.3 Approach, 2005 55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006 55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007 55.3.2 Effects of Long-Range Tip-Sample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between Bimorph-Driven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012 55.4 Conclusion, 2020 References, 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025 Kwok-Wai Ng 56.1 Introduction, 2025 56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026 56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030 56.4 The Scanner, 2032 56.5 Operating Mode, 2035 56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036 56.7 Summary, 2041 References, 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043 John D. Bullough 57.1 Introduction, 2043 57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043 57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043 57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047 57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048 57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052 57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056 57.3.1 Photometry, 2056 57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063 57.4 Instrumentation, 2072 57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072 57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072 57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074 References, 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075 Clair J. Sullivan 58.1 Introduction, 2075 58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076 58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076 58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077 58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078 58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080 58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081 58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081 58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086 58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090 58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092 58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092 58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094 58.4.7 Semiconductors, 2096 58.5 Neutron Detection, 2100 58.5.1 Thermal Neutron Detection, 2102 58.5.2 Fast Neutron Detection, 2104 58.6 Concluding Remarks, 2106 References, 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109 Judah Levine 59.1 Introduction, 2109 59.2 A Generic Clock, 2109 59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators, 2110 59.3.1 Worst-Case Analysis, 2111 59.3.2 Statistical Analysis and the Allan Variance, 2113 59.3.3 Limitations of the Statistics, 2116 59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators, 2117 59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators, 2119 59.6 Noise Models, 2121 59.6.1 White Phase Noise, 2121 59.6.2 White Frequency Noise, 2122 59.6.3 Long-Period Effects: Frequency Aging, 2123 59.6.4 Flicker Noise, 2124 59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods, 2126 59.8 Measurement Strategies, 2129 59.9 The Kalman Estimator, 2133 59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information, 2135 59.10.1 Modeling the Delay, 2136 59.10.2 The Common-View Method, 2137 59.10.3 The "Melting-Pot" Version of Common View, 2138 59.10.4 Two-Way Methods, 2139 59.10.5 The Two-Color Method, 2139 59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies, 2141 59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS, 2141 59.11.2 The One-Way Method of Time Transfer: Modeling the Delay, 2144 59.11.3 The Common-View Method, 2145 59.11.4 Two-Way Time Protocols, 2147 59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock?, 2152 59.13 Error Detection, 2155 59.14 Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2156 59.15 The National Time Scale, 2157 59.16 Traceability, 2158 59.17 Summary, 2159 59.18 Bibliography, 2160 References, 2160 60 Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement 2163 Charles D. Hoyle, Jr. 60.1 Introduction, 2163 60.2 Motivation for Laboratory-Scale Tests of Gravitational Physics, 2164 60.3 Parameterization, 2165 60.4 Current Status of Laboratory-Scale Gravitational Measurements, 2166 60.4.1 Tests of the ISL, 2166 60.4.2 WEP Tests, 2167 60.4.3 Measurements of G, 2167 60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments, 2167 60.5.1 General Principles and Sensitivity, 2168 60.5.2 Fundamental Limitations, 2168 60.5.3 ISL Experiments, 2171 60.5.4 Future ISL Tests, 2172 60.5.5 WEP Tests, 2176 60.5.6 Measurements of G, 2176 60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity, 2177 60.6.1 Microcantilevers, 2177 60.6.2 Very Short-Range ISL Tests, 2177 60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques, 2178 Acknowledgements, 2178 References, 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181 Ray Radebaugh 61.1 Introduction, 2181 61.2 Temperature, 2182 61.2.1 ITS-90 Temperature Scale and Primary Standards, 2182 61.2.2 Commercial Thermometers, 2183 61.2.3 Thermometer Use and Comparisons, 2193 61.2.4 Dynamic Temperature Measurements, 2199 61.3 Strain, 2201 61.3.1 Metal Alloy Strain Gages, 2202 61.3.2 Temperature Effects, 2203 61.3.3 Magnetic Field Effects, 2204 61.3.4 Measurement System, 2205 61.3.5 Dynamic Measurements, 2205 61.4 Pressure, 2205 61.4.1 Capacitance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.2 Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.3 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors, 2208 61.4.4 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, 2210 61.5 Flow, 2211 61.5.1 Positive Displacement Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2212 61.5.2 Angular Momentum Flowmeter (Mass Flow), 2212 61.5.3 Turbine Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2213 61.5.4 Differential Pressure Flowmeter, 2213 61.5.5 Thermal or Calorimetric (Mass Flow), 2216 61.5.6 Hot-Wire Anemometer (Mass Flow), 2217 61.6 Liquid Level, 2218 61.7 Magnetic Field, 2219 61.8 Conclusions, 2220 References, 2220 62 Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225 James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears, M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere 62.1 Introduction, 2225 62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry, 2227 62.3 Theory and Background, 2227 62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems, 2235 62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry, 2238 62.6 Representative Measurement Applications, 2239 62.6.1 Permanent Magnet Rotor Measurement, 2239 62.6.2 Turbine Engine Component Measurement, 2240 62.7 Two-Dimensional and Time-Dependent Temperature Measurement, 2241 62.8 Conclusion, 2243 References, 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245 Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci 63.1 Introduction, 2245 63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers, 2247 63.3 Instrument Transformers, 2248 63.3.1 Theoretical Fundamentals and Characteristics, 2248 63.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protective Purposes, 2252 63.3.3 Instrument Transformers under Nonsinusoidal Conditions, 2253 63.3.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformer, 2254 63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components, 2255 63.4.1 Shunts, 2255 63.4.2 Voltage Dividers, 2256 63.4.3 Isolation Amplifiers, 2257 63.5 Hall-Effect and Zero-Flux Transducers, 2258 63.5.1 The Hall Effect, 2258 63.5.2 Open-Loop Hall-Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.3 Closed-Loop Hall-Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.4 Zero-Flux Transducers, 2262 63.6 Air-Core Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils, 2262 63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Transducers, 2267 63.7.1 Optical Current Transducers, 2268 63.7.2 Optical Voltage Transducer, 2271 63.7.3 Applications of OCTs and OVTs, 2272 References and Further Reading, 2273 64 Electric Power and Energy Measurement 2275 Alessandro Ferrero and Marco Faifer 64.1 Introduction, 2275 64.2 Power and Energy in Electric Circuits, 2276 64.2.1 DC Circuits, 2276 64.2.2 AC Circuits, 2277 64.3 Measurement Methods, 2282 64.3.1 DC Conditions, 2282 64.3.2 AC Conditions, 2285 64.4 Wattmeters, 2288 64.4.1 Architecture, 2288 64.4.2 Signal Processing, 2289 64.5 Transducers, 2290 64.5.1 Current Transformers, 2291 64.5.2 Hall-Effect Sensors, 2296 64.5.3 Rogowski Coils, 2297 64.5.4 Voltage Transformers, 2299 64.5.5 Electronic Transformers, 2302 64.6 Power Quality Measurements, 2303 References, 2305 Part Viii CHEMISTRY 2307 65 An Overview of Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences 2309 Brad Swarbrick and Frank Westad 65.1 Introduction: The Past and Present of Chemometrics, 2309 65.2 Representative Data, 2311 65.2.1 A Suggested Workflow for Developing Chemometric Models, 2313 65.2.2 Accuracy and Precision, 2313 65.2.3 Summary of Representative Data Principles, 2316 65.3 Exploratory Data Analysis, 2317 65.3.1 Univariate and Multivariate Analysis, 2317 65.3.2 Cluster Analysis, 2318 65.3.3 Principal Component Analysis, 2323 65.4 Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.1 General Principles of Univariate and Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression, 2354 65.4.3 Principal Component Regression, 2355 65.4.4 Partial Least Squares Regression, 2356 65.5 Multivariate Classification, 2369 65.5.1 Linear Discriminant Analysis, 2370 65.5.2 Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy, 2372 65.5.3 Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis, 2381 65.5.4 Support Vector Machine Classification, 2383 65.6 Techniques for Validating Chemometric Models, 2385 65.6.1 Test Set Validation, 2386 65.6.2 Cross Validation, 2388 65.7 An Introduction to Mspc, 2389 65.7.1 Multivariate Projection, 2389 65.7.2 Hotelling's T2 Control Chart, 2390 65.7.3 Q-Residuals, 2391 65.7.4 Influence Plot, 2391 65.7.5 Continuous versus Batch Monitoring, 2392 65.7.6 Implementing MSPC in Practice, 2394 65.8 Terminology, 2397 65.9 Chapter Summary, 2401 References, 2404 66 Liquid Chromatography 2409 Zhao Li, Sandya Beeram, Cong Bi, Ellis Kaufmann, Ryan Matsuda, Maria Podariu, Elliott Rodriguez, Xiwei Zheng, and David S. Hage 66.1 Introduction, 2409 66.2 Support Materials in Lc, 2412 66.3 Role of the Mobile Phase in Lc, 2413 66.4 Adsorption Chromatography, 2414 66.5 Partition Chromatography, 2415 66.6 Ion-Exchange Chromatography, 2417 66.7 Size-Exclusion Chromatography, 2419 66.8 Affinity Chromatography, 2421 66.9 Detectors for Liquid Chromatography, 2423 66.10 Other Components of Lc Systems, 2426 Acknowledgements, 2427 References, 2427 67 Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins 2431 Xianquan Zhan and Dominic M. Desiderio 67.1 Introduction, 2431 67.1.1 Formation, Chemical Properties, and Related Nomenclature of Tyrosine Nitration, 2431 67.1.2 Biological Roles of Tyrosine Nitration in a Protein, 2432 67.1.3 Challenge and Strategies to Identify a Nitroprotein with Mass Spectrometry, 2432 67.1.4 Biological Significance Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2434 67.2 Mass Spectrometric Characteristics of Nitropeptides, 2434 67.2.1 MALDI-MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2434 67.2.2 ESI-MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2437 67.2.3 Optimum Collision Energy for Ion Fragmentation and Detection Sensitivity for a Nitropeptide, 2438 67.2.4 MS/MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide under Different Ion-Fragmentation Models, 2440 67.3 Ms Measurement of in vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.1 Importance of Measurement of In Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.2 Commonly Used In Vitro Nitroproteins and Their Preparation, 2443 67.3.3 Methods Used to Measure in Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2444 67.4 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins, 2446 67.4.1 Importance of Isolation and Enrichment of In Vivo Nitroprotein/Nitropeptide Prior to MS Analysis, 2446 67.4.2 Methods Used to Isolate and Enrich In Vivo Nitroproteins/Nitropeptides, 2446 67.5 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins in Different Pathological Conditions, 2449 67.6 Biological Function Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2456 67.6.1 Literature Data-Based Rationalization of Biological Functions, 2457 67.6.2 Protein Domain and Motif Analyses, 2459 67.6.3 Systems Pathway Analysis, 2459 67.6.4 Structural Biology Analysis, 2460 67.7 Pitfalls of Nitroprotein Measurement, 2462 67.8 Conclusions, 2463 Nomenclature, 2464 Acknowledgments, 2465 References, 2465 68 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 2475 Yevgen Povrozin and Beniamino Barbieri 68.1 Observables Measured in Fluorescence, 2476 68.2 The Perrin-Jablon ski Diagram, 2476 68.3 Instrumentation, 2479 68.3.1 Light Source, 2480 68.3.2 Monochromator, 2480 68.3.3 Light Detectors, 2481 68.3.4 Instrumentation for Steady-State Fluorescence: Analog and Photon Counting, 2483 68.3.5 The Measurement of Decay Times: Frequency-Domain and Time-Domain Techniques, 2484 68.4 Fluorophores, 2486 68.5 Measurements, 2487 68.5.1 Excitation Spectrum, 2487 68.5.2 Emission Spectrum, 2488 68.5.3 Decay Times of Fluorescence, 2490 68.5.4 Quantum Yield, 2492 68.5.5 Anisotropy and Polarization, 2492 68.6 Conclusions, 2498 References, 2498 Further Reading, 2498 69 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 2499 Grant Bunker 69.1 Introduction, 2499 69.2 Basic Physics of X-Rays, 2499 69.2.1 Units, 2500 69.2.2 X-Ray Photons and Their Properties, 2500 69.2.3 X-Ray Scattering and Diffraction, 2501 69.2.4 X-Ray Absorption, 2502 69.2.5 Cross Sections and Absorption Edges, 2503 69.3 Experimental Requirements, 2505 69.4 Measurement Modes, 2507 69.5 Sources, 2507 69.5.1 Laboratory Sources, 2507 69.5.2 Synchrotron Radiation Sources, 2508 69.5.3 Bend Magnet Radiation, 2509 69.5.4 Insertion Devices: Wigglers and Undulators, 2509 69.6 Beamlines, 2512 69.6.1 Instrument Control and Scanning Modes, 2512 69.6.2 Double-Crystal Monochromators, 2513 69.6.3 Focusing Conditions, 2514 69.6.4 X-Ray Lenses and Mirrors, 2515 69.6.5 Harmonics, 2516 69.7 Detectors, 2518 69.7.1 Ionization Chambers and PIN Diodes, 2519 69.7.2 Solid-State Detectors, SDDs, and APDs, 2520 69.8 Sample Preparation and Detection Modes, 2521 69.8.1 Transmission Mode, 2521 69.8.2 Fluorescence Mode, 2521 69.8.3 HALO, 2522 69.8.4 Sample Geometry and Background Rejection, 2523 69.8.5 Oriented Samples, 2525 69.9 Absolute Measurements, 2526 References, 2526 70 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 2529 Kenneth R. Metz 70.1 Introduction, 2529 70.2 Historical Review, 2530 70.3 Basic Principles of Spin Magnetization, 2531 70.4 Exciting the NMR Signal, 2534 70.5 Detecting the NMR Signal, 2538 70.6 Computing the NMR Spectrum, 2540 70.7 NMR Instrumentation, 2542 70.8 The Basic Pulsed FTNMR Experiment, 2550 70.9 Characteristics of NMR Spectra, 2551 70.9.1 The Chemical Shift, 2552 70.9.2 Spin-Spin Coupling, 2557 70.10 NMR Relaxation Effects, 2563 70.10.1 Spin-Lattice Relaxation, 2563 70.10.2 Spin-Spin Relaxation, 2565 70.10.3 Quantitative Analysis by NMR, 2568 70.11 Dynamic Phenomena in NMR, 2568 70.12 Multidimensional NMR, 2573 70.13 Conclusion, 2580 References, 2580 71 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Role in Scientific and Engineering Applications 2583 Brad Swarbrick 71.1 Introduction to Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Historical Perspectives, 2583 71.1.1 A Brief Overview of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Usage, 2583 71.1.2 A Short History of NIR, 2585 71.2 The Theory behind Nir Spectroscopy, 2588 71.2.1 IR Radiation, 2588 71.2.2 The Mechanism of Interaction of NIR Radiation with Matter, 2588 71.2.3 Absorbance Spectra, 2591 71.3 Instrumentation for Nir Spectroscopy, 2595 71.3.1 General Configuration of Instrumentation, 2595 71.3.2 Filter-Based Instruments, 2597 71.3.3 Holographic Grating-Based Instruments, 2598 71.3.4 Stationary Spectrographic Instruments, 2600 71.3.5 Fourier Transform Instruments, 2601 71.3.6 Acoustooptical Tunable Filter Instruments, 2603 71.3.7 Microelectromechanical Spectrometers, 2604 71.3.8 Linear Variable Filter Instruments, 2605 71.3.9 A Brief Overview of Detectors Used for NIR Spectroscopy, 2606 71.3.10 Summary, 2608 71.4 Modes of Spectral Collection and Sample Preparation in Nir Spectroscopy, 2609 71.4.1 Transmission Mode, 2609 71.4.2 Diffuse Reflectance, 2611 71.4.3 Sample Preparation, 2613 71.4.4 Fiber Optic Probes, 2617 71.4.5 Summary of Sampling Methods, 2619 71.5 Preprocessing of Nir Spectra for Chemometric Analysis, 2620 71.5.1 Preprocessing of NIR Spectra, 2621 71.5.2 Minimizing Additive Effects, 2621 71.5.3 Minimizing Multiplicative Effects, 2627 71.5.4 Preprocessing Summary, 2633 71.6 A Brief Overview of Applications of Nir Spectroscopy, 2633 71.6.1 Agricultural Applications, 2634 71.6.2 Pharmaceutical/Biopharmaceutical Applications, 2636 71.6.3 Applications in the Petrochemical and Refining Sectors, 2644 71.6.4 Applications in the Food and Beverage Industries, 2646 71.7 Summary and Future Perspectives, 2647 71.8 Terminology, 2648 References, 2652 72 Nanomaterials Properties 2657 Paul J. Simmonds 72.1 Introduction, 2657 72.2 The Rise of Nanomaterials, 2660 72.3 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from High Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio, 2661 72.3.1 The Importance of Surfaces in Nanomaterials, 2661 72.3.2 Electrostatic and Van der Waals Forces, 2662 72.3.3 Color, 2663 72.3.4 Melting Point, 2663 72.3.5 Magnetism, 2664 72.3.6 Hydrophobicity and Surface Energetics, 2664 72.3.7 Nanofluidics, 2666 72.3.8 Nanoporosity, 2668 72.3.9 Nanomembranes, 2669 72.3.10 Nanocatalysis, 2670 72.3.11 Further Increasing the SAV Ratio, 2671 72.3.12 Nanopillars, 2672 72.3.13 Nanomaterial Functionalization, 2673 72.3.14 Other Applications for High SAV Ratio Nanomaterials, 2674 72.4 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from Quantum Confinement, 2674 72.4.1 Quantum Well Nanostructures, 2677 72.4.2 Quantum Wire Nanostructures, 2682 72.4.3 Quantum Dot Nanostructures, 2691 72.5 Conclusions, 2695 References, 2695 73 Chemical Sensing 2707 W. Rudolf Seitz 73.1 Introduction, 2707 73.2 Electrical Methods, 2709 73.2.1 Potentiometry, 2709 73.2.2 Voltammetry, 2713 73.2.3 Chemiresistors, 2715 73.2.4 Field Effect Transistors, 2716 73.3 Optical Methods, 2717 73.3.1 In situ Optical Measurements, 2717 73.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 2719 73.3.3 Indicator-Based Optical Sensors, 2721 73.4 Mass Sensors, 2722 73.5 Sensor Arrays (Electronic Nose), 2724 References, 2724 Index 2727

Handbook of measurement in science and engineering

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