Plasma and spot phenomena in electrical arcs
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Bibliographic Information
Plasma and spot phenomena in electrical arcs
（Springer series on atomic, optical, and plasma physics, v. 113）
Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020
- v. 1
- v. 2
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Includes bibliographical references and index
Description and Table of Contents
Description
This book is devoted to a thorough investigation of the physics and applications of the vacuum arc - a highly-ionized metallic plasma source used in a number of applications - with emphasis on cathode spot phenomena and plasma formation. The goal is to understand the origins and behavior of the various complex and sometimes mysterious phenomena involved in arc formation, such as cathode spots, electrode vaporization, and near-electrode plasma formation. The book takes the reader from a model of dense cathode plasma based on charge-exchange ion-atom collisions through a kinetic approach to cathode vaporization and on to metal thermophysical properties of cathodes. This picture is further enhanced by an in-depth study of cathode jets and plasma acceleration, the effects of magnetic fields on cathode spot behavior, and electrical characteristics of arcs and cathode spot dynamics. The book also describes applications to space propulsion, thin film deposition, laser plasma generation, and magnetohydrodynamics, making this comprehensive and up-to-date volume a valuable resource for researchers in academia and industry.
Table of Contents
PrefaceIntroductionPart 1. General plasma and solid-plasma interface phenomenaChapter 1. Base particle-surface and plasma particle effects1.1 Plasma, particle collisions at the surface and in plasma volume1.2 Plasma1.2.1 Quasi-neutrality1.2.2 Oscillations.1.2.3 Electron beam-plasma interaction.1.2.4 Plasma State.1.3 Surface-particle collisions1.4 Plasma particle collisions1.4.1 Charge particle collisions1.4.2 Electron scattering on atoms1.4.3 Charge-exchange collisions1.4.4 Excitation and ionization collisions1.4.4.1 Classical approach1.4.4.2 Quantum mechanical approach1.4.4.3 Experimental data1.4.5 Electron-ion recombination1.4.6 Ionization-recombination equilibriumChapter 2. Atom and electron emission from the metal surface2.1 Kinetics of metal vaporization2.1.1 Non-equilibrium (kinetic) region2.1.2 Kinetic approaches. Atom evaporations2.1.3 Kinetic approaches. Evaporations into plasma2.2 Electron emission2.2.1 Work function. Electron function distribution2.2.2 Thermionic or T-emission2.2.3 Schottky effect. Field or F-emission2.2.4 Thermionic and Field or TF-emission2.2.5 Threshold approximation2.2.6 Individual electron emission2.2.7 Fowler-Northeim-type equations and their correcting for measured plot analysis2.2.8 Explosive electron emissionChapter 3. Arc spot as a local heat source. Heat conduction of a solid body.3.1 Brief state of the art analysis3.2 Thermal regime of a semi-finite body. Methods in linearly approximation3.2.1 Point source. Continuous heating3.2.2 Normal circular heat source on a body surface.3.2.3 Instantaneous normal circular heat source on semi-infinity body3.2.4 Moving normal circular heat source on a semi-infinity body3.3 Heating of a thin plate3.3.1 Instantaneous normal circular heat source on a plate3.3.2 Moving normal circular heat source on a plate3.4 A normal distributed heat source moving on lateral side of a thin semi-infinite plate3.4.1 Instantaneous normally distributed heat source on side of a thin semi-infinite plate3.4.2 Moving continuous normally distributed heat source on thin plate of thickness .3.4.3 Fixed normal-strip heat source with thickness x0 on semi-infinite body.3.4.4 Fixed normal-strip heat source with thickness x0 on semi-infinite body limited by plane x=- /23.4.5 Fixed normal-strip heat source with thickness x0 on lateral side of finite plate (x0< )3.4.6 Moving normal-strip heat source on a later plate side of limited thickness (x0< )3.5 Temperature field calculations. Normal circular heat source on a semi-infinite body3.5.1 Temperature field in a tungsten3.5.2 Temperature field in a copper.3.5.3 Temperature field calculations. Normal heat source on a later side of thin plate and plate with limited thickness3.5.4 Summary3.6 Nonlinear heat conduction 3.6.1 Heat conduction problems related to the cathode thermal regime in vacuum arcs3.6.2 Normal circular heat source action on a semi-infinity body with nonlinear boundary condition3.6.3 Numerical solution of 3D heat conduction equation with nonlinear boundary conditionReferencesChapter 4. The transport equations and diffusion phenomena in multicomponent plasma4.1 The problem4.2 Transport phenomena in a plasma. General equations4.2.1 Equations of particle fluxes for three-components cathode plasma4.2.2 Transport equations for three-component cathode plasma4.2.3 Transport equations for five-component cathode plasmaReferencesChapter 5. Plasma surface transition at the cathode of a vacuum arc5.1 Cathode sheath5.2 Space charge zone at the sheath boundary and the sheath stability5.3 Two regions. Boundary conditions 5.4 Kinetic approach5.5 Electrical field.5.5.1 Collisionless approach5.5.2 Electric field. Plasma electrons. Particle temperatures5.5.3 Refractory cathode. Virtual cathode5.5.3.1 Single charged ions5.5.3.2 Multi charged ions. Quasineutrality.5.6 Electrical double layerReferencesChapter 6. Vacuum arc ignition. Electrical breakdown6.1 Contact triggering of the arc6.1.1 Triggering of the arc using additional trigger electrode6.1.2 Initiation of the arc by contact breaking of the main electrodes6.1.3 Contact phenomena6.2 Electrical breakdown6.2.1 Electrical breakdown conditions6.2.2 General mechanisms of electrical breakdown in a vacuum6.2.3 Mechanisms of breakdown based on explosive cathode protrusions6.2.4 Mechanism of anode thermal instability6.2.5 Electrical breakdown at an insulator surface6.3 ConclusionsReferencesPart 2. Electrode spots. Mass and heat losses. ExperimentChapter 7. Arc and Cathode spot. Current density7.1 Arc electrical characteristics.7.1.1 Arc definition.7.1.2 Arc instability7.1.3 Arc voltage.7.1.4 Cathode potential drop7.1.5 Threshold arc current7.2 Cathode spots dynamics. Spot velocity7.2.1 Spot definition7.2.2 Study of the spots. General experimental approaches7.2.3 Spot study by high speed images.7.2.3.1 Early observations of spots on different cathodes7.2.3.2 Spot types on fresh and cleaned cathode surfaces7.2.3.3 High temporal and spatial resolution of spots on arc-cleaned cathodes 7.2.4 Autograph observation. Crater sizes7.2.5 Summary of the spot types studies.7.2.5.1 Spot image dynamics.7.2.5.2 Summary of the autographs study7.2.5.3 Comparison of the results of both approaches7.2.6 Classification of the spot types by their characteristics7.3 Cathode spot current density7.3.1 Spot current density determination. 7.3.2 Image sizes with optical observation7.3.3 Crater sizes observation7.3.4 Influence of the conditions. Uncertainty7.3.5 Interpretation of the observed subjects7.3.6 Effects of small cathode and low current density. Heating estimations.7.3.7 SummaryReferencesChapter 8. Electrode erosion. Total mass losses8.1 Electroerosion phenomena.8.1.1 General overview8.1.2 Electroerosion phenomena in air8.1.3 Electroerosion phenomena in liquid dielectric media8.2 Erosion phenomena in vacuum arcs8.2.1 Moderate current of the vacuum arcs8.2.2 Electrode erosion in high current arcs8.2.3 Erosion phenomena in vacuum of metallic tip as high field emitter8.3 Summary and discussion of the erosion measurementsReferencesChapter 9. Electrode erosion. Macroparticle generation9.1 Macroparticle generation. Conventional arc9.2 Macroparticle charging9.3 Macroparticle interaction9.3.1 Interaction with plasma9.3.2 Interaction with a wall and substrate9.4 Macroparticle generation in an arc with hot anodes.9.4.1 Macroparticles in a Hot Refractory Anode Vacuum Arc (HRAVA).9.4.2 Macroparticles in a Vacuum Arc with Black Body Assembly (VABBA).9.5 Concluding remarksReferencesChapter 10. Electrode energy losses. Effective voltage.10.1 Measurements of the effective voltage in a vacuum arc10.2 Effective electrode voltage in an arc in presence of a gas pressure10.3 Effective electrode voltage in a vacuum arc with hot refractory anode10.4 Energy flux from the plasma of a vacuum arc with hot refractory anode10.5 SummaryReferencesChapter 11. Repulsive effect. Force phenomena due to plasma jet reaction.11.1 General view11.2 Repulsive effect upon the electrodes of electrical arc. Early measurements of hydrostatic pressure and plasma expansion11.3 Measurements of the force at electrodes in an electrical arc11.4 Preliminary discussion of the force mechanism at the electrodes in arcs11.5 ResumeReferencesChapter 12. Cathode spot jets. Velocity and ion current12.1 Plasma jet velocity12.2 Ion energy12.3 Ion velocity and energy in an arc with large rate of current rise dI/dt12.4 Ion current fraction12.5 Ion charge state12.6 Influence of the magnetic field12.7 Vacuum arc with refractory anode. Ion current12.8 SummaryReferencesChapter 13. Spot motion in a transverse and in oblique magnetic fields13.1 The general problem.13.2 Effect of spot motion in a magnetic field13.3 Retrograde spot motion.13.3.1 Magnetic field parallel to the cathode surface. Direct cathode spot motion13.3.1.1 Cathode spot velocity moved in transverse magnetic field.13.3.1.2 Cathode heating and retrograde cathode spot motion13.3.1.3 Gas pressure and gap distance influence on the spot motion under TMF13.3.1.4 Magnetic field and group spot dynamics13.3.2 Phenomena in an oblique magnetic fields13.3.2.1 Cathode spot motion in oblique magnetic fields13.3.2.2 Cathode spot motion with a long roof-shaped cathode under magnetic field13.3.2.3 Cathode spot splitting in an oblique magnetic field13.4 SummaryReferencesChapter 14. Anode phenomena in electrical arcs13.1 General functions of the anode13.2 Anode modes in vacuum arcs13.2.1 Anode spotless mode. Low current arcs13.2.2 Anode spot mode for large arc current.13.2.3 Anode spot mode for small anode diameter13.3 Anode modes in presence a gas pressure13.3.1 Low pressure gas13.3.2 Moving normal circular heat source on a plate13.4 Anode parameters measurements13.4.1 Anode temperature measurements13.4.2 Plasma parameters 13.5 Summary ReferencesPart 3. Electrode phenomena. Theory Chapter 15. Cathode Spot. Previous theoretical models15.1 Early Ideas 15.2 First quasi-consistent description. 15.3 Explosive models. 15.4 Analysis of the state, and the cathode spot problem formulation ()15.5 SummaryReferencesChapter 16. Cathode Spot. Diffusion model. Mathematically closed theory16.1 Cathode plasma and role charge-exchange collisions.16.2 Idea of continuum cathodic plasma description. First basis of hydrodynamic approach and its applicability for the cathode plasma spot description., 1969-1971.16.3 Electrical sheath. Diffuse model of spot plasma.16.3.1 Low ionized plasma approach.16.3.2 High ionized plasma approach.16.3.3 Spot physical model and mathematically closed system of equation.16.3.4 Numerical investigation of cathode spot parameters.16.4 SummaryReferences17. Cathode spot. Kinetic model. Physically closed theory17.2 Kinetic model.17.3 Kinetic of cathode vaporization. Knudsen layer.17.3.1 New approach of kinetic of atom vaporization into the plasma.17.3.2 Function distribution of near cathode vaporized and plasma particles.17.3.3 Conservation laws and the equations of conservation.17.3.4 Integration. The multi system of equations derivation.17.4 Physically closed system of equation of cathode spot.17.5 Numerical investigation of cathode spot parameters by physically closed approach.17.6 SummaryReferencesChapter 18. Spot-plasma and plasma jet.18.1 State of the mechanism of plasma jet generation and expansion.18.2 Plasma jet. Model of plasma expansion.18.3 Mathematical description and system of equations.18.4 Plasma jet and boundary condition.18.5 Self-consistent spot-jet plasma expansion.18.6 SummaryReferencesChapter 19. Cathode spot motion in magnetic fields19.1 Cathode spot motion in a transverse magnetic field. 19.1.1 Retrograde motion. Literature hypothesis19.1.2 Cathode spot grouping19.1.3 Physical and mathematical model of spot current-magnetic field action19.1.4 Calculation of spot grouping in a magnetic field.19.1.5 Calculation of retrograde spot motion19.2 Cathode spot motion in oblique magnetic field. Acute angle effect.19.2.1 Literature hypothesis19.2.2 Physical and mathematical model of spot drift due to the acute angle effect19.2.3 Model of spot splitting in oblique field19.2.4 Calculation of spot splitting19.2.5 Calculation of spot motion in oblique field19.3 SummaryReferencesPart 4. ApplicationsChapter 20. Short arc. Vacuum arc spot thruster 20.1 Phenomena in arcs with small electrode gaps20.2 Microplasma generation in a microscale short vacuum arc20.3 Modeling of a microscale short vacuum arc for a space propulsion thruster20.4 SummaryReferencesChapter 21. Vacuum arcs with refractory anode21.1 New arc mode. Physical phenomena. Two anode configuration21.2 Theory. Mathematical description21.3 Time dependent anode temperature21.4 Application for coatings. Advances and comparison with other methods.21.5 Time dependent thin film deposition.21.6 Dependencies on arc current, cathode-anode configuration and materials.21.7 SummaryReferences Chapter 22. Laser spot. Laser plasma generation22.1 Physics of laser plasma generation 22.2 Laser plasma interaction with ablative target22.3 Theory. Self-consistent system of equations22.4 Results of calculations of plasma and target parameters. Effect of reduction of plasma-target shielding. Effect of conversion of the laser power radiation.22.5 SummaryReferencesChapter 23. Effects of current carrying wall in a plasma flow in a magnetohydrodynamic duct. Arcing mode.23.1 MHD energy conversion, Electrode problem23.2 Hot electrodes. Overheating instability.23.3 Volt-current characteristics. Conditions for arcing with spot mode.23.4 Cold cathode. Spot presence in plasma flow with potashium doping.23.5 Spot model in MHD ducts. Specifics of system of equations. Calculations23.6 SummaryReferencesConclusions
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