An integrated framework for structural geology : kinematics, dynamics, and rheology of deformed rocks

著者

• Wojtal, Steven F.
• Blenkinsop, Tom G.
• Tikoff, Basil

書誌事項

An integrated framework for structural geology : kinematics, dynamics, and rheology of deformed rocks

Steven Wojtal, Tom Blenkinsop, Basil Tikoff

Wiley, 2022

• : pbk

注記

"This edition first published 2022"--T.p. verso

Includes bibliographical references and index

内容説明・目次

内容説明

AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK FOR STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY A modern and practice-oriented approach to structural geology An Integrated Framework for Structural Geology: Kinematics, Dynamics, and Rheology of Deformed Rocks builds a framework for structural geology from geometrical description, kinematic analysis, dynamic evolution, and rheological investigation of deformed rocks. The unique approach taken by the book is to integrate these principles of continuum mechanics with the description of rock microstructures and inferences about deformation mechanisms. Field, theoretical and laboratory approaches to structural geology are all considered, including the application of rock mechanics experiments to nature. Readers will also find: Three case studies that illustrate how the framework can be applied to deformation at different levels in the crust and in an applied structural geology context Hundreds of detailed, two-color illustrations of exceptional clarity, as well as many microstructural and field photographs The quantitative basis of structural geology delivered through clear mathematics Written for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in geology, An Integrated Framework for Structural Geology will also earn a place in the libraries of practicing geologists with an interest in a one-stop resource on structural geology.

目次

Acknowledgements xvii Website xix 1 A Framework for Structural Geology 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Deformation 1 1.1.2 Empirical vs. Theoretical Approaches 1 1.1.3 Continuum Mechanics and its Applicability to Structural Geology 6 1.1.4 How to use this Book 6 References 8 2 Structures Produced by Deformation 10 2.1 Geological Structures 10 2.1.1 Structural Fabrics 10 2.1.2 Folds and Boudinage 12 2.1.3 Fractures and Stylolites 15 2.1.4 Faults and Fault Zones 17 2.1.5 Shear Zones 22 2.2 Additional Considerations 25 3 Microstructures 26 3.1 Introduction 26 3.1.1 Overview 26 3.1.2 Framework 27 3.1.3 Imaging of Microstructures 27 3.2 Fractures 28 3.3 Fault Rocks 30 3.4 Overgrowths, Pressure Shadows and Fringes, and Veins 33 3.5 Indenting, Truncating and Interpenetrating Grain Contacts, Strain Caps, and Stylolites 37 3.6 Aligned Grain Boundaries, T Grain Boundaries, and Foam Texture 38 3.7 Undulose Extinction, Subgrains, Deformation and Kink Bands, Deformation Lamellae, Grain Boundary Bulges, and Core-and-Mantle Microstructure 40 3.8 Deformation Twins 43 3.9 Grain Shape Fabrics, Ribbon Grains, and Gneissic Banding 43 3.10 Porphyroblasts 47 3.11 Crystallographic Fabrics (Crystallographic Preferred Orientations) 49 3.12 Shear Sense Indicators, Mylonites, and Porphyroclasts 49 3.12.1 Asymmetric Pressure Shadows and Fringes 53 3.12.2 Foliation Obliquity and Curvature 55 3.12.3 SC, SC', and SCC' Fabrics 55 3.12.4 Porphyroclast Systems 56 3.12.5 Precautions with Shear Sense Determination 59 3.13 Collecting Oriented Samples and Relating Sample to Geographic Frames of Reference 60 References 65 4 Displacements 66 4.1 Overview 66 4.2 Chapter Organization 66 4A Displacements: Conceptual Foundation 67 4A.1 Specifying Displacements or Individual Particles 67 4A.1.1 Basic Ideas 67 4A.1.2 Geological Example 69 4A.2 Particle Paths and Velocities 70 4A.2.1 Particle Paths 70 4A.2.2 Velocities 71 4A.3 Displacements of Collections of Particles - Displacement Fields 74 4A.3.1 Displacement Fields 74 4A.3.2 Uniform vs. Nonuniform and Distributed vs. Discrete Displacement Fields 76 4A.3.3 Classes of Displacement Fields 77 4A.4 Components of Displacement Fields: Translation, Rotation, and Pure Strain 79 4A.5 Idealized, Two-Dimensional Displacement Fields 85 4A.5.1 Simple Shear 87 4A.5.2 Pure Shear 88 4A.6 Idealized, Three-Dimensional Displacement Fields 89 4A.7 Summary 90 4B Displacements: Comprehensive Treatment 90 4B.1 Specifying Displacements for Individual Particles 90 4B.1.1 Defining Vector Quantities 90 4B.1.2 Types of Vectors 92 4B.1.3 Relating Position and Displacement Vectors 94 4B.1.4 Characterizing Vector Quantities 95 4B.2 Particle Paths and Velocities 97 4B.2.1 Incremental Displacements for Particles 97 4B.2.2 Particle Paths and Movement Histories 98 4b.2.3 Dated Particle Paths, Instantaneous Movement Directions, and Velocities 99 4B.3 Displacements of Collections of Particles - Displacement Fields 101 4B.3.1 Concept of a Displacement Field 101 4B.3.2 Field Quantities 103 4b.3.3 Gradients of the Displacement Field: Discrete and Distributed Deformation 103 4B.3.4 Idealized Versus True Gradients of the Displacement Field 104 4B.4 The Displacement Gradient Tensor - Relating Position and Displacement Vectors 106 4b.4.1 Components of Displacement Fields: Translation, Rotation, and Pure Strain 107 4B.4.2 Translation Displacement Fields 107 4B.4.3 Rigid Rotation Displacement Fields 107 4B.4.4 Pure Strain Displacement Fields 109 4B.4.5 Total Displacement Fields 110 4b.4.6 Using Displacement Gradient Matrices to Represent Displacement Fields 110 4B.5 Idealized, Two- dimensional Displacement Fields 111 4B.5.1 Simple Shear Displacement Fields 111 4B.5.2 Uniaxial Convergence or Uniaxial Divergence Displacement Fields 113 4B.5.3 Pure Shear Displacement Fields 115 4B.5.4 General Shear Displacement Fields 117 4B.6 Idealized, Three-Dimensional Displacement Fields 117 4B.6.1 Three-Dimensional Simple Shear Displacement Fields 119 4b.6.2 Three-Dimensional Orthogonal Convergence and Divergence Displacement Fields 121 4B.6.3 Pure Shearing Displacement Fields 121 4B.6.4 Constrictional Displacement Fields 122 4B.6.5 Flattening Displacement Fields 123 4B.6.6 Three-Dimensional General Shearing Displacement Fields 124 4B.7 Summary 124 Appendix 4-I: Vectors 124 4-I.1 Simple Mathematical Operations with Vectors 124 4-I.2 Vector Magnitudes 126 4-I.3 Properties of Vector Quantities 126 4-I.4 Relating Magnitude and Orientation to Cartesian Coordinates 127 4-I.5 Vector Products 129 Appendix 4-II: Matrix Operations 130 4-II.1 Defining Matrices 130 4-II.2 Matrix Addition and Subtraction 130 4-II.3 Matrix Multiplication 131 4-II.3.1 Multiplying Two "2 x 2" Matrices 132 4-II.3.2 Multiplying Two "3 x 3" Matrices 132 4-II.3.3 Multiplying a 2 x 2 Matrix Times a 2 x 1 Matrix 133 4-II.3.4 Multiplying a 3 x 3 Matrix Times a 3 x 1 Matrix 133 4-II.3.5 Scalar Multiplication 134 4-II.4 Transpose of a Matrix 134 4-II.5 Determinant of a Square Matrix 135 4-II.6 Inverse of a Square Matrix 135 4-II.7 Rotation Matrices 136 References 137 5 Strain 138 5.1 Overview 138 5.2 Chapter Organization 139 5A Strain: Conceptual Foundation 139 5A.1 Specifying Strain in Deformed Rocks 139 5A.2 One-dimensional Manifestations of Strain 141 5A.2.1 Basic Ideas 141 5A.2.2 Geological Example 142 5A.3 Two-dimensional Manifestations of Strain 143 5A.3.1 Longitudinal Strains in Different Directions 143 5A.3.2 Shear Strain 147 5A.4 Relating Strain to Displacements 151 5A.5 Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Strain 153 5A.6 Finite Strain Ellipse and Finite Strain Ellipsoid 154 5A.6.1 Finite Strain Ellipse 154 5A.6.2 Finite Strain Ellipsoid 159 5A.7 States of Strain and Strain Paths 163 5A.7.1 States of Strain 163 5A.7.2 Strain Paths and Dated Strain Paths 163 5A.7.3 Coaxial Versus Non-Coaxial Strain Paths 164 5A.8 Instantaneous Strains and Strain Rates 166 5A.9 Infinitesimal Strains 166 5A.10 Summary 167 5A.11 Practical Methods for Measuring Strain 167 5A.11.1 Using Fabrics to Estimate Strain Ellipsoid Shape 167 5A.11.2 Types of Methods for Measuring Strain in Two Dimensions 168 5A.11.3 Measuring Strain in Two Dimensions Using Deformed Markers 169 5B Strain: Comprehensive Treatment 176 5B.4 Relating Strain to Displacements 176 5B.4.1 Longitudinal Strains and Displacement Gradients 177 5B.4.2 Longitudinal Strains and Position Gradients 179 5B.4.3 Relating Displacement Gradients and Position Gradients 179 5B.4.4 Longitudinal Strain in Continuous Deformation 179 5B.4.5 Consequences of Longitudinal Strains 181 5B.4.6 Displacement Gradients and Longitudinal Strains in Different Directions 182 5B.4.7 Position Gradients and Longitudinal Strains in Different Directions 184 5B.4.8 Relating Displacement Gradients and Position Gradients in Two Dimensions 185 5B.4.9 Area Ratios in Two-Dimensional Deformation 186 5B.4.10 Discontinuous Deformation in Two Dimensions 186 5B.4.11 Displacement Gradients and Shear Strains 187 5B.4.12 Shear Strains and Position Gradients 188 5B.4.13 Applying Matrix Algebra to Two-dimensional Deformation 188 5B.4.14 Applying Matrix Algebra to Three-dimensional Deformation 195 5B.5 Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Deformation 197 5B.5.1 Homogeneous Deformation 197 5B.5.2 Inhomogeneous Deformation 198 5B.6 Finite Strain Ellipse and Finite Strain Ellipsoid 200 5B.6.1 Homogeneous Deformations and the Finite Strain Ellipse 200 5B.6.2 Working with Strain Markers 200 5B.6.3 Finite Strain Ellipsoid 205 5B.7 States of Strain and Strain Paths 205 5B.7.1 States of Strain 205 5B.7.2 Strain Paths 206 5B.7.3 Velocity Gradient Tensor and Decomposition 207 5B.8 Vorticity 210 5B.8.1 Vorticity Vector 211 5B.8.2 Kinematic Vorticity Number 213 5B.9 Summary 213 Appendix 5-I 214 References 216 6 Stress 217 6.1 Overview 217 6A Stress: Conceptual Foundation 218 6A.1 Forces, Tractions, and Stress 220 6A.1.1 Accelerations and the Forces that Act on Objects 220 6A.1.2 Forces Transmitted Through Objects 221 6A.1.3 Traction - A Measure of "Force Intensity" within Objects 221 6A.1.4 Stress 223 6A.2 Characteristics of Stress in Two Dimensions 225 6A.2.1 Normal and Tangential Stress Components 225 6A.2.2 Stresses on Planes with Different Orientations 227 6A.2.3 Principal Stresses and Differential Stress 227 6A.2.4 The Fundamental Stress Equations 231 6A.3 State of Stress in Two Dimensions 233 6A.3.1 The Stress Matrix 233 6A.3.2 The Stress Ellipse 234 6A.3.3 The Mohr circle 235 6A.3.4 Hydrostatic vs. Non-hydrostatic Stress 246 6A.3.5 Homogeneous vs. Inhomogeneous Stress 248 6A.4 Stress in Three Dimensions 248 6A.4.1 The Stress Ellipsoid 251 6A.4.2 Hydrostatic, Lithostatic, and Deviatoric Stresses 251 6A.5 Pore-fluid Pressure and Effective Stress 253 6A.6 Three-dimensional States of Stress 254 6A.7 The State of Stress in Earth 255 6A.8 Change of Stress: Paleostress, Path, and History 256 6A.9 Comparison of Displacements, Strain and Stress 257 6A.10 Summary 259 6A.11 Practical Methods for Measuring Stress 261 6A.11.1 In situ Stress Measurements 261 6A.11.2 Paleostress 268 6B Stress: Comprehensive Treatment 272 6B.1 Force, Traction, and Stress Vectors 272 6B.1.1 Accelerations and Forces 272 6B.1.2 Traction or Stress Vectors 273 6b.1.3 Relating Traction or Stress Vector Components in Different Coordinate Frames 274 6B.1.4 Stress Transformation Law in Two Dimensions and the Mohr Circle 277 6b.1.5 Stress Transformation Law in Three Dimensions and the Mohr Diagram 279 6B.1.6 An Alternative Way to Define Traction or Stress Vectors 281 6B.1.7 Determining Stress Principal Directions and Magnitudes 282 6B.1.8 Stress Invariants 284 6B.1.9 Spatial Variation in Stress 285 Appendix 6-I 289 References 291 7 Rheology 292 7.1 Overview 292 7A Rheology: Conceptual Foundation 293 7A.1 Moving Beyond Equilibrium 293 7A.1.1 Conducting and Interpreting Deformation Experiments 294 7A.1.2 Recoverable Deformation versus Material Failure 297 7A.1.3 Moving from Deformation Experiments to Mathematical Relations 301 7A.2 Models of Rock Deformation 303 7A.2.1 Elastic Behavior 303 7A.2.2 Criteria for Fracture or Fault Formation 308 7A.2.3 Yield and Creep 321 7A.2.4 Viscous Behavior 322 7A.2.5 Plastic Behavior 322 7A.2.6 Constitutive Equations for Viscous Creep and Plastic Yield 324 7A.3 Summary 327 7B Rheology: Comprehensive Treatment 328 7B.1 Combining Deformation Models to Describe Rock Properties 328 7B.2 Rock Deformation Modes 332 7B.2.1 Elasticity 332 7B.2.2 Fracture or Fault Formation 337 7B.2.3 Differential Stress, Pore Fluid Pressure, and Failure Mode 356 7B.2.4 Yield and Creep 359 7B.2.5 Viscous Behavior 360 7B.2.6 Plastic Behavior 363 7B.2.7 Lithospheric Strength Profiles 363 References 364 8 Deformation Mechanisms 367 8.1 Overview 367 8A Deformation Mechanisms: Conceptual Foundation 370 8A.1 Elastic Distortion 371 8A.2 Cataclastic Deformation Mechanisms 373 8A.2.1 Fracture of Geological Materials 373 8A.2.2 Frictional Sliding 376 8A.2.3 Microstructures Associated with Cataclasis and Frictional Sliding 380 8A.2.4 Cataclasis and Frictional Sliding as a Deformation Mechanism 380 8A.3 Diffusional Deformation Mechanisms 380 8A.3.1 Diffusion 380 8A.3.2 Grain Shape Change by Diffusion 385 8A.3.3 Microstructures Associated with Diffusional Mass Transfer 387 8A.3.4 Diffusional Mass Transfer as a Deformation Mechanism 390 8a.3.5 Flow Laws for Three Diffusional Mass Transfer Deformation Mechanisms 391 8A.4 Dislocational Deformation Mechanisms 393 8A.4.1 Dislocations as Elements of Lattice Distortion 393 8A.4.2 Dislocation Interactions 403 8A.4.3 Recovery and Recrystallization 405 8a.4.4 Microstructures Indicative of Dislocation- Accommodated Deformation 409 8A.4.5 Dislocation Glide: A Deformation Mechanism 414 8A.4.6 Flow Law for Dislocation Glide 415 8A.4.7 Dislocation Creep: A Deformation Mechanism 415 8A.4.8 Flow Law for Dislocation Creep 415 8A.4.9 Other Lattice Deformation Processes - Twinning and Kinking 416 8A.5 Diffusion- and/or Dislocation-Accommodated Grain Boundary Sliding 418 8A.6 Deformation Mechanism Maps 419 8A.7 Summary 422 8B Deformation Mechanisms: Comprehensive Treatment 423 8B.1 Cataclastic Deformation Mechanisms 423 8B.1.1 Joints, Fractures, and Mesoscopic Faults 423 8B1.2 Fault Zones 431 8B.2 Diffusional Deformation Mechanisms 448 8B.2.1 Diffusional Mass Transfer Structures 448 8B.2.2 Understanding Diffusion Through Crystalline Materials 453 8B.2.3 The Effect of Differential Stress 455 8B.2.4 Flow Laws for Diffusional Deformation Mechanisms 456 8B.2.5 Paths of Rapid Diffusion - Dislocations and Grain Boundaries 458 8B.2.6 The Effect of Fluid Phases Along Grain Boundaries 459 8B.3 Dislocational Deformation Mechanisms 460 8B.3.1 Origin of Dislocations 460 8B.3.2 Dislocation Movement 461 8B.3.3 Dislocation Interactions 467 8B.3.4 Stresses Associated with Dislocations 470 8B.3.5 Strains Accommodated by the Glide of Dislocations 470 8B.3.6 Constitutive Equations for Dislocation Creep 473 8B.3.7 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Dislocation Creep Regimes 475 8B.3.8 Twinning and Kinking 477 8B.4 Grain Boundary Sliding and Superplasticity 482 Appendix 8-I 484 Appendix 8-II 486 References 487 9 Case Studies of Deformation and Rheology 496 9.1 Overview 496 9.2 Integrating Structural Geology and Geochronology: Ruby Gap Duplex, Redbank Thrust Zone, Australia 497 9.2.1 Geological Setting and Deformation Character 497 9.2.2 Microstructures and Deformation Mechanisms 502 9.2.3 Rheological Analysis Using Microstructures by Comparison to Experimental Deformation 508 9.2.4 Geochronology 508 9.2.5 Evaluating Displacement Through Time 510 9.2.6 Orogenic Development Through Time 512 9.2.7 Summarizing Deformation in the Ruby Gap Duplex 512 9.3 The Interplay of Deformation Mechanisms and Rheologies in the Mid-Crust: Copper Creek Thrust Sheet, Appalachian Valley and Ridge, Tennessee, United States 514 9.3.1 Introduction 514 9.3.2 General Characteristics of the Southern Appalachian Fold-Thrust Belt 514 9.3.3 Deformation of the Copper Creek Thrust Sheet 518 9.3.4 Summarizing Deformation of the Copper Creek Thrust Sheet 534 9.4 Induced Seismicity 535 9.4.1 Overview of Induced Seismicity 535 9.4.2 Earthquakes in the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa 536 9.4.3 Basel, Switzerland 539 9.4.4 Blackpool, United Kingdom 540 9.4.5 Oklahoma, United States 543 9.4.6 Koyna and Warna, India 545 9.4.7 A Framework for Understanding Induced Seismicity 549 9.5 Using Case Studies to Assess Lithospheric Strength Profiles 556 9.5.1 Lithospheric Strength Profiles 556 9.5.2 Comparing Stress Magnitudes Inferred from the Case Studies to Lithospheric Strength Profiles 562 9.5.3 Recap 564 9.6 Broader Horizons 565 References 566 Index 573

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詳細情報

• NII書誌ID(NCID): BC16834243
• ISBN:
  • 9781405106849
• 出版国コード: us
• タイトル言語コード: eng
• 本文言語コード: eng
• 出版地: Hoboken
• ページ数/冊数: xix, 580 p.
• 大きさ: 24 cm
• 分類:
  • LCC : QE601
  • DC23 : 551.8
• 件名:
  • LCSH : Rock deformation
  • LCSH : Deformations (Mechanics)
  • LCSH : Microstructure
  • LCSH : Geology, Structural