Extracellular carbohydrates

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Extracellular carbohydrates

edited by W. Tanner and F. A. Loewus ; contributors, G. O. Aspinall ... [et al.]

（Encyclopedia of plant physiology. New series, v. 13 B . Plant carbohydrates ; 2）

Springer-Verlag, 1981

  • : Germany
  • : U.S.

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Description and Table of Contents

Description

In 1958, a single volume in the original series of this Encyclopedia adequately summarized the state of knowledge about plant carbohydrates. Expansion into two volumes in the New Series highlights the explosive increase in information and the heightened interest that attended this class of compounds in the interven- ing years. Even now the search has just begun. Much remains to be accom- plished; e.g., a full description of the plant cell wall in chemical terms. Why this growing fascination with plant carbohydrates? Clearly, much credit goes to those who pioneered the complex chemistry of polyhydroxylated compounds and to those who later sorted out the biochemical features of these molecules. But there is a second aspect, the role of carbohydrates in such biological func- tions as host-parasite and pollen-pistil interactions, the mating reaction in fungi, symbiosis, and secretion to name a few. Here is ample reason for anyone concerned with the plant sciences to turn aside for a moment and consider how carbohydrates, so many years neglected in favor of the study of proteins and nucleic acids, contribute to the physiological processes of growth and devel- opment in plants.

Table of Contents

  • I. Cell Walls of Higher Plants.- 1 Constitution of Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 1 The Classification of Plant Polysaccharides.- 2 The Main Structural Features.- 2.1 Cellulose, Other ?-d-Glucose and Xyloglucans.- 2.2 Rhamnogalacturonans and Associated Arabinans and Arabinogalactans.- 2.3 Mannans, Glucomannans and Galactoglucomannans.- 2.4 Xylans.- 2.5 Other Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 3 Covalent and Non-Covalent Inter-Polymeric Linkages in the Cell Wall.- References.- 2 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biophysical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 What a Plant Cell Wall Is.- 1.2 What a Plant Cell Wall Is Not.- 1.3 Functions and Biological Significance of the Plant Cell Wall.- 2 Idealized Plant Cell Wall: Structure.- 2.1 Intercellular Layer.- 2.2 Primary Cell Wall.- 2.2.1 Matrix Substances.- 2.2.2 Microfibrils of Cellulose.- 2.2.3 Local Structure of the Primary Wall.- 2.3 Secondary Cell Wall.- 2.3.1 Bordered Pits.- 2.4 Tertiary Wall.- 3 Actual Plant Cell Walls: Structure.- 3.1 Intercellular Layers of Various Species.- 3.2 Thickened Primary Wall of Axial Parenchyma Cells of Trembling Aspen.- 3.3 Secondary Wall Layers of Elm Parenchyma Cells.- 3.4 Ultrastructure of Cell Walls of Fusarium sulphureum.- 3.5 Ultrastructure of the Cell Wall of Yeasts.- 3.6 Cell Wall Structure of Algae.- 3.7 Physical Structure of Cell Walls from Protoplasts.- 3.8 Physics of Specialized Structures of Plant Cell Walls.- 4 Macromolecular Problems of Formation of Components of Plant Cell Walls.- 4.1 Physical Formation of Cellulose Microfibrils.- 4.2 Physical Formation of Chitin Microfibrils.- 4.3 Deposition of Hemicelluloses.- 4.4 Physical Self-Assembly of Plant Cell Walls.- 5 Resume.- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum -I. Cell Walls of Higher Plants.- 1 Constitution of Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 1 The Classification of Plant Polysaccharides.- 2 The Main Structural Features.- 2.1 Cellulose, Other ?-d-Glucose and Xyloglucans.- 2.2 Rhamnogalacturonans and Associated Arabinans and Arabinogalactans.- 2.3 Mannans, Glucomannans and Galactoglucomannans.- 2.4 Xylans.- 2.5 Other Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 3 Covalent and Non-Covalent Inter-Polymeric Linkages in the Cell Wall.- References.- 2 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biophysical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 What a Plant Cell Wall Is.- 1.2 What a Plant Cell Wall Is Not.- 1.3 Functions and Biological Significance of the Plant Cell Wall.- 2 Idealized Plant Cell Wall: Structure.- 2.1 Intercellular Layer.- 2.2 Primary Cell Wall.- 2.2.1 Matrix Substances.- 2.2.2 Microfibrils of Cellulose.- 2.2.3 Local Structure of the Primary Wall.- 2.3 Secondary Cell Wall.- 2.3.1 Bordered Pits.- 2.4 Tertiary Wall.- 3 Actual Plant Cell Walls: Structure.- 3.1 Intercellular Layers of Various Species.- 3.2 Thickened Primary Wall of Axial Parenchyma Cells of Trembling Aspen.- 3.3 Secondary Wall Layers of Elm Parenchyma Cells.- 3.4 Ultrastructure of Cell Walls of Fusarium sulphureum.- 3.5 Ultrastructure of the Cell Wall of Yeasts.- 3.6 Cell Wall Structure of Algae.- 3.7 Physical Structure of Cell Walls from Protoplasts.- 3.8 Physics of Specialized Structures of Plant Cell Walls.- 4 Macromolecular Problems of Formation of Components of Plant Cell Walls.- 4.1 Physical Formation of Cellulose Microfibrils.- 4.2 Physical Formation of Chitin Microfibrils.- 4.3 Deposition of Hemicelluloses.- 4.4 Physical Self-Assembly of Plant Cell Walls.- 5 Resume.- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.3 Assembly at the Plasma Membrane.- 3.4.4 Deposition of Polysaccharides in the Wall.- 4 Metabolism During Cell Division, Growth, Differentiation, Senescence and Germination.- 4.1 Methodological Considerations and Interpretations.- 4.2 Molecular Strategies in Morphogenesis.- 4.3 Cell Plate Formation.- 4.4 Primary Cell Wall Deposition and Expansion.- 4.5 Secondary Cell Wall Deposition and Growth.- 4.6 Cell Wall Metabolism During Differentiation in Specific Tissues.- 4.6.1 Tracheids, Laticifers, Aerenchyma and Lateral Root Initiation.- 4.6.2 Tyloses.- 4.6.3 Formation of Plasmodesmata and Differentiation of Sieve Plates.- 4.6.4 Gametogenic Tissues.- 4.6.5 Mucilage (Slime)- and Gum-secreting Cells.- 4.7 Senescence.- 4.7.1 Abscission.- 4.7.2 Fruit Senescence.- 4.7.3 Flower and Leaf Senescence.- 4.8 Germination.- 5 Metabolism in Response to Environmental Changes and Pathogenesis.- 5.1 Tropisms.- 5.1.1 Geotropism and Phototropism.- 5.1.2 Reaction Wood.- 5.1.3 Hypogravity.- 5.2 Environmental Stress.- 5.3 Wounding Responses.- 5.4 Pathogenesis.- References.- 7 Glycoproteins and Enzymes of the Cell Wall.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural or Matrix Proteins.- 2.1 Higher and Lower Plants.- 2.1.1 Glycopeptide Linkages.- 2.1.2 Hydroxyproline Glycosides.- 2.1.3 Peptide Sequence and Conformation.- 2.1.4 Role of Glycosylation.- 2.1.5 Assembly.- 2.1.6 Possible Roles for the Matrix Protein Extensin.- 2.2 Algae.- 2.2.1 Occurrence of Matrix Proteins.- 2.2.2 The Chlamydomonas Type Wall.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3 Cell Wall Enzymes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Biological Role.- 3.2.1 Involvement in Cell Wall Assembly and Cell Extension.- 3.2.2 Involvement in Transport.- 3.2.3 Involvement in Recognition Phenomena and Disease Resistance.- 4 Arabinogalactan Proteins (AGP's) and ?-Lectins.- 4.1 General Properties.- 4.2 Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Biosynthesis.- 4.3 Biological Role.- 4.3.1 Water Relations.- 4.3.2 Mechanical Cell-Cell Interactions.- 4.3.3 Cell Recognition.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 The Role of Lipid-Linked Saccharides in the Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of the Lipid Carrier.- 3 Glycoproteins or Other Complex Carbohydrates.- 4 Lipid-linked Monosaccharides.- 4.1 Mannose.- 4.2 Glucose.- 4.3 N-Acetylglucosamine.- 4.4 Other Monosaccharide Lipids.- 5 Oligosaccharide Derivatives.- 6 Protein Glycosylation.- 7 Further Reactions - Processing of Proteins.- 8 Effect of Antibiotics and Other Inhibitors.- 9 Subcellular Location of the Enzymes of the Dolichol Pathway.- 10 Conclusions.- References.- 9 Biosynthesis of Lignin.- 1 Occurrence of Lignin in Plants.- 2 Morphological Distribution of Lignins in Plant Cell Walls.- 3 Biogenesis of Lignin Precursors.- 3.1 Shikimic Acid -I. Cell Walls of Higher Plants.- 1 Constitution of Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 1 The Classification of Plant Polysaccharides.- 2 The Main Structural Features.- 2.1 Cellulose, Other ?-d-Glucose and Xyloglucans.- 2.2 Rhamnogalacturonans and Associated Arabinans and Arabinogalactans.- 2.3 Mannans, Glucomannans and Galactoglucomannans.- 2.4 Xylans.- 2.5 Other Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 3 Covalent and Non-Covalent Inter-Polymeric Linkages in the Cell Wall.- References.- 2 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biophysical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 What a Plant Cell Wall Is.- 1.2 What a Plant Cell Wall Is Not.- 1.3 Functions and Biological Significance of the Plant Cell Wall.- 2 Idealized Plant Cell Wall: Structure.- 2.1 Intercellular Layer.- 2.2 Primary Cell Wall.- 2.2.1 Matrix Substances.- 2.2.2 Microfibrils of Cellulose.- 2.2.3 Local Structure of the Primary Wall.- 2.3 Secondary Cell Wall.- 2.3.1 Bordered Pits.- 2.4 Tertiary Wall.- 3 Actual Plant Cell Walls: Structure.- 3.1 Intercellular Layers of Various Species.- 3.2 Thickened Primary Wall of Axial Parenchyma Cells of Trembling Aspen.- 3.3 Secondary Wall Layers of Elm Parenchyma Cells.- 3.4 Ultrastructure of Cell Walls of Fusarium sulphureum.- 3.5 Ultrastructure of the Cell Wall of Yeasts.- 3.6 Cell Wall Structure of Algae.- 3.7 Physical Structure of Cell Walls from Protoplasts.- 3.8 Physics of Specialized Structures of Plant Cell Walls.- 4 Macromolecular Problems of Formation of Components of Plant Cell Walls.- 4.1 Physical Formation of Cellulose Microfibrils.- 4.2 Physical Formation of Chitin Microfibrils.- 4.3 Deposition of Hemicelluloses.- 4.4 Physical Self-Assembly of Plant Cell Walls.- 5 Resume.- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.3 Assembly at the Plasma Membrane.- 3.4.4 Deposition of Polysaccharides in the Wall.- 4 Metabolism During Cell Division, Growth, Differentiation, Senescence and Germination.- 4.1 Methodological Considerations and Interpretations.- 4.2 Molecular Strategies in Morphogenesis.- 4.3 Cell Plate Formation.- 4.4 Primary Cell Wall Deposition and Expansion.- 4.5 Secondary Cell Wall Deposition and Growth.- 4.6 Cell Wall Metabolism During Differentiation in Specific Tissues.- 4.6.1 Tracheids, Laticifers, Aerenchyma and Lateral Root Initiation.- 4.6.2 Tyloses.- 4.6.3 Formation of Plasmodesmata and Differentiation of Sieve Plates.- 4.6.4 Gametogenic Tissues.- 4.6.5 Mucilage (Slime)- and Gum-secreting Cells.- 4.7 Senescence.- 4.7.1 Abscission.- 4.7.2 Fruit Senescence.- 4.7.3 Flower and Leaf Senescence.- 4.8 Germination.- 5 Metabolism in Response to Environmental Changes and Pathogenesis.- 5.1 Tropisms.- 5.1.1 Geotropism and Phototropism.- 5.1.2 Reaction Wood.- 5.1.3 Hypogravity.- 5.2 Environmental Stress.- 5.3 Wounding Responses.- 5.4 Pathogenesis.- References.- 7 Glycoproteins and Enzymes of the Cell Wall.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural or Matrix Proteins.- 2.1 Higher and Lower Plants.- 2.1.1 Glycopeptide Linkages.- 2.1.2 Hydroxyproline Glycosides.- 2.1.3 Peptide Sequence and Conformation.- 2.1.4 Role of Glycosylation.- 2.1.5 Assembly.- 2.1.6 Possible Roles for the Matrix Protein Extensin.- 2.2 Algae.- 2.2.1 Occurrence of Matrix Proteins.- 2.2.2 The Chlamydomonas Type Wall.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3 Cell Wall Enzymes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Biological Role.- 3.2.1 Involvement in Cell Wall Assembly and Cell Extension.- 3.2.2 Involvement in Transport.- 3.2.3 Involvement in Recognition Phenomena and Disease Resistance.- 4 Arabinogalactan Proteins (AGP's) and ?-Lectins.- 4.1 General Properties.- 4.2 Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Biosynthesis.- 4.3 Biological Role.- 4.3.1 Water Relations.- 4.3.2 Mechanical Cell-Cell Interactions.- 4.3.3 Cell Recognition.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 The Role of Lipid-Linked Saccharides in the Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of the Lipid Carrier.- 3 Glycoproteins or Other Complex Carbohydrates.- 4 Lipid-linked Monosaccharides.- 4.1 Mannose.- 4.2 Glucose.- 4.3 N-Acetylglucosamine.- 4.4 Other Monosaccharide Lipids.- 5 Oligosaccharide Derivatives.- 6 Protein Glycosylation.- 7 Further Reactions - Processing of Proteins.- 8 Effect of Antibiotics and Other Inhibitors.- 9 Subcellular Location of the Enzymes of the Dolichol Pathway.- 10 Conclusions.- References.- 9 Biosynthesis of Lignin.- 1 Occurrence of Lignin in Plants.- 2 Morphological Distribution of Lignins in Plant Cell Walls.- 3 Biogenesis of Lignin Precursors.- 3.1 Shikimic Acid -.- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.3 Assembly at the Plasma Membrane.- 3.4.4 Deposition of Polysaccharides in the Wall.- 4 Metabolism During Cell Division, Growth, Differentiation, Senescence and Germination.- 4.1 Methodological Considerations and Interpretations.- 4.2 Molecular Strategies in Morphogenesis.- 4.3 Cell Plate Formation.- 4.4 Primary Cell Wall Deposition and Expansion.- 4.5 Secondary Cell Wall Deposition and Growth.- 4.6 Cell Wall Metabolism During Differentiation in Specific Tissues.- 4.6.1 Tracheids, Laticifers, Aerenchyma and Lateral Root Initiation.- 4.6.2 Tyloses.- 4.6.3 Formation of Plasmodesmata and Differentiation of Sieve Plates.- 4.6.4 Gametogenic Tissues.- 4.6.5 Mucilage (Slime)- and Gum-secreting Cells.- 4.7 Senescence.- 4.7.1 Abscission.- 4.7.2 Fruit Senescence.- 4.7.3 Flower and Leaf Senescence.- 4.8 Germination.- 5 Metabolism in Response to Environmental Changes and Pathogenesis.- 5.1 Tropisms.- 5.1.1 Geotropism and Phototropism.- 5.1.2 Reaction Wood.- 5.1.3 Hypogravity.- 5.2 Environmental Stress.- 5.3 Wounding Responses.- 5.4 Pathogenesis.- References.- 7 Glycoproteins and Enzymes of the Cell Wall.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural or Matrix Proteins.- 2.1 Higher and Lower Plants.- 2.1.1 Glycopeptide Linkages.- 2.1.2 Hydroxyproline Glycosides.- 2.1.3 Peptide Sequence and Conformation.- 2.1.4 Role of Glycosylation.- 2.1.5 Assembly.- 2.1.6 Possible Roles for the Matrix Protein Extensin.- 2.2 Algae.- 2.2.1 Occurrence of Matrix Proteins.- 2.2.2 The Chlamydomonas Type Wall.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3 Cell Wall Enzymes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Biological Role.- 3.2.1 Involvement in Cell Wall Assembly and Cell Extension.- 3.2.2 Involvement in Transport.- 3.2.3 Involvement in Recognition Phenomena and Disease Resistance.- 4 Arabinogalactan Proteins (AGP's) and ?-Lectins.- 4.1 General Properties.- 4.2 Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Biosynthesis.- 4.3 Biological Role.- 4.3.1 Water Relations.- 4.3.2 Mechanical Cell-Cell Interactions.- 4.3.3 Cell Recognition.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 The Role of Lipid-Linked Saccharides in the Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of the Lipid Carrier.- 3 Glycoproteins or Other Complex Carbohydrates.- 4 Lipid-linked Monosaccharides.- 4.1 Mannose.- 4.2 Glucose.- 4.3 N-Acetylglucosamine.- 4.4 Other Monosaccharide Lipids.- 5 Oligosaccharide Derivatives.- 6 Protein Glycosylation.- 7 Further Reactions - Processing of Proteins.- 8 Effect of Antibiotics and Other Inhibitors.- 9 Subcellular Location of the Enzymes of the Dolichol Pathway.- 10 Conclusions.- References.- 9 Biosynthesis of Lignin.- 1 Occurrence of Lignin in Plants.- 2 Morphological Distribution of Lignins in Plant Cell Walls.- 3 Biogenesis of Lignin Precursors.- 3.1 Shikimic Acid - Phenylalanine Pathway.- 3.2 Cinnamic Acid Pathway.- 3.2.1 Hydroxylation of Cinnamic Acids.- 3.2.2 Methylation of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 3.2.3 Reduction of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 4 Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols to Lignins.- 4.1 Role of Peroxidase in the Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols (Monolignols) to Lignins.- 4.2 Structural Variation in Dehydrogenation Polymers.- 5 Formation and Distribution of Syringyl Lignin in Angiosperm Woods.- 6 Differences Between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in Lignin Biosynthesis.- 7 Regulation of Lignin Biosynthesis.- References.- 10 Hydrophobic Layers Attached to Cell Walls. Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Location and Ultrastructure of Cutin, Suberin, and Waxes.- 3 Composition and Structure of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.1 Isolation and Depolymerization of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.2 Composition of the Monomers of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.3 Intermolecular Linkages in Cutin and Suberin.- 4 Biosynthesis of Cutin and Suberin.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of the C16 Family of Monomers.- 4.2 Biosynthesis of the C18 Family of Monomers.- 4.3 Synthesis of the Cutin Polymer from Monomers.- 4.4 Biosynthesis of the Aliphatic Components of Suberin.- 4.5 Regulation of Suberization.- 4.6 Site of Synthesis of the Monomers and the Polymers.- 5 Biodegradation of Cutin and Suberin.- 5.1 Fungal Cutinase.- 5.2 Pollen Cutinase.- 6 Isolation and Analysis of Waxes.- 7 Composition of Waxes.- 8 Biosynthesis of Waxes.- 8.1 Biosynthesis of Very Long Fatty Acids.- 8.2 Biosynthesis of Fatty Alcohols.- 8.3 Biosynthesis of Wax Esters.- 8.4 Biosynthesis of Hydrocarbons and Derivatives.- 8.5 Biosynthesis of ?-Diketones.- 9 Function of Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- References.- 11 Wall Extensibility: Hormones and Wall Extension.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellular Parameters Which Control Cell Elongation.- 3 Do Hormones Control Wall Extension via Changes in Wall Extensibility?.- 3.1 WEx and the Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.1 What is WEx?.- 3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.3 Changes in WEx in Vivo.- 3.2 Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.1 Measurement of the Mechanical Properties of Isolated Walls.- 3.2.2 Direct Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.3 Other Mechanical Testing Procedures.- 3.3 Cases Where Hormones Affect WEx.- 3.3.1 Auxin.- 3.3.2 Gibberellin.- 3.3.3 Other Hormones.- 3.3.4 Conclusions.- 4 The Mechanism of Auxin-Induced Wall Loosening.- 4.1 Wall Structure, Wall Synthesis and Wall Loosening.- 4.2 Possible Mechanisms for Wall Loosening.- 4.2.1 Breakage of Hydrogen Bonds.- 4.2.2 Calcium Cross-Links.- 4.2.3 Nonenzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.4 Enzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.5 Conclusions.- References.- II. Cell Walls of Algae and Fungi.- 12 Algal Walls - Composition and Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellulose and Other Glucans.- 2.1 Chlorophyceae.- 2.2 Rhodophyceae.- 2.3 Phaeophyceae.- 2.4 Biosynthesis.- 2.5 (1 ? 3)-?-glucan.- 3 Xylans.- 3.1 Rhodophyceae.- 3.2 Chlorophyceae.- 4 Mannans.- 4.1 Chlorophyceae.- 4.2 Bacillariophyceae.- 5 Alginic Acid.- 5.1 Constitution and Structure.- 5.2 Ion Exchange.- 5.3 Conformation.- 5.4 Gel Formation.- 5.5 Variations in Structure.- 5.6 Biosynthesis.- 6 Galactans.- 6.1 Agar and Related Molecules.- 6.2 Carrageenan and Related Polysaccharides.- 6.3 Conformation.- 6.4 Gametophyte and Sporophyte Carrageenans.- 6.5 Immunochemistry.- 6.6 Cell Wall Localization.- 6.7 Biosynthesis.- 7 Fucans.- 7.1 Structure.- 7.2 Site of Sulfate.- 7.3 Biosynthesis.- 7.4 Location and Function.- 8 Sulfated Polysaccharides of the Chlorophyceae.- 9 Polysaccharides of the Bacillariophyceae.- 10 Extracellular Polysaccharides.- 10.1 From Phaeophyceae.- 10.2 From Rhodophyceae.- 10.3 From the Xanthophyceae.- 10.4 From Bacillariophyceae.- 11 Conclusions.- 11.1 Functions.- 11.2 Taxonomy.- References.- 13 Algal Walls - Cytology of Formation.- 1 Matrix Polysaccharide and Slime Production.- 2 Microfibril Synthesis and Orientation.- 2.1 The Formation and Secretion of Scales.- 2.1.1 Scale Structure.- 2.1.2 The Golgi Apparatus and Scale Production.- 2.1.3 Scale Transport and Liberation.- 2.2 Microfibril Deposition in Cellulosic Algae.- 2.2.1 Cladophorales, Siphonocladales.- 2.2.2 Chlorococcales.- 2.2.3 Conjugales (Placoderm Desmids).- 2.3 The Production of Chitin Microfibrils.- 2.3.1 Poterioochromonas.- 2.3.2 Centric Diatoms.- 3 Glycoprotein Wall Formation.- References.- 14 Algal Wall-Degrading Enzymes -#8212
  • Phenylalanine Pathway.- 3.2 Cinnamic Acid Pathway.- 3.2.1 Hydroxylation of Cinnamic Acids.- 3.2.2 Methylation of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 3.2.3 Reduction of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 4 Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols to Lignins.- 4.1 Role of Peroxidase in the Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols (Monolignols) to Lignins.- 4.2 Structural Variation in Dehydrogenation Polymers.- 5 Formation and Distribution of Syringyl Lignin in Angiosperm Woods.- 6 Differences Between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in Lignin Biosynthesis.- 7 Regulation of Lignin Biosynthesis.- References.- 10 Hydrophobic Layers Attached to Cell Walls. Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Location and Ultrastructure of Cutin, Suberin, and Waxes.- 3 Composition and Structure of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.1 Isolation and Depolymerization of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.2 Composition of the Monomers of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.3 Intermolecular Linkages in Cutin and Suberin.- 4 Biosynthesis of Cutin and Suberin.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of the C16 Family of Monomers.- 4.2 Biosynthesis of the C18 Family of Monomers.- 4.3 Synthesis of the Cutin Polymer from Monomers.- 4.4 Biosynthesis of the Aliphatic Components of Suberin.- 4.5 Regulation of Suberization.- 4.6 Site of Synthesis of the Monomers and the Polymers.- 5 Biodegradation of Cutin and Suberin.- 5.1 Fungal Cutinase.- 5.2 Pollen Cutinase.- 6 Isolation and Analysis of Waxes.- 7 Composition of Waxes.- 8 Biosynthesis of Waxes.- 8.1 Biosynthesis of Very Long Fatty Acids.- 8.2 Biosynthesis of Fatty Alcohols.- 8.3 Biosynthesis of Wax Esters.- 8.4 Biosynthesis of Hydrocarbons and Derivatives.- 8.5 Biosynthesis of ?-Diketones.- 9 Function of Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- References.- 11 Wall Extensibility: Hormones and Wall Extension.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellular Parameters Which Control Cell Elongation.- 3 Do Hormones Control Wall Extension via Changes in Wall Extensibility?.- 3.1 WEx and the Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.1 What is WEx?.- 3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.3 Changes in WEx in Vivo.- 3.2 Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.1 Measurement of the Mechanical Properties of Isolated Walls.- 3.2.2 Direct Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.3 Other Mechanical Testing Procedures.- 3.3 Cases Where Hormones Affect WEx.- 3.3.1 Auxin.- 3.3.2 Gibberellin.- 3.3.3 Other Hormones.- 3.3.4 Conclusions.- 4 The Mechanism of Auxin-Induced Wall Loosening.- 4.1 Wall Structure, Wall Synthesis and Wall Loosening.- 4.2 Possible Mechanisms for Wall Loosening.- 4.2.1 Breakage of Hydrogen Bonds.- 4.2.2 Calcium Cross-Links.- 4.2.3 Nonenzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.4 Enzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.5 Conclusions.- References.- II. Cell Walls of Algae and Fungi.- 12 Algal Walls - Composition and Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellulose and Other Glucans.- 2.1 Chlorophyceae.- 2.2 Rhodophyceae.- 2.3 Phaeophyceae.- 2.4 Biosynthesis.- 2.5 (1 ? 3)-?-glucan.- 3 Xylans.- 3.1 Rhodophyceae.- 3.2 Chlorophyceae.- 4 Mannans.- 4.1 Chlorophyceae.- 4.2 Bacillariophyceae.- 5 Alginic Acid.- 5.1 Constitution and Structure.- 5.2 Ion Exchange.- 5.3 Conformation.- 5.4 Gel Formation.- 5.5 Variations in Structure.- 5.6 Biosynthesis.- 6 Galactans.- 6.1 Agar and Related Molecules.- 6.2 Carrageenan and Related Polysaccharides.- 6.3 Conformation.- 6.4 Gametophyte and Sporophyte Carrageenans.- 6.5 Immunochemistry.- 6.6 Cell Wall Localization.- 6.7 Biosynthesis.- 7 Fucans.- 7.1 Structure.- 7.2 Site of Sulfate.- 7.3 Biosynthesis.- 7.4 Location and Function.- 8 Sulfated Polysaccharides of the Chlorophyceae.- 9 Polysaccharides of the Bacillariophyceae.- 10 Extracellular Polysaccharides.- 10.1 From Phaeophyceae.- 10.2 From Rhodophyceae.- 10.3 From the Xanthophyceae.- 10.4 From Bacillariophyceae.- 11 Conclusions.- 11.1 Functions.- 11.2 Taxonomy.- References.- 13 Algal Walls - Cytology of Formation.- 1 Matrix Polysaccharide and Slime Production.- 2 Microfibril Synthesis and Orientation.- 2.1 The Formation and Secretion of Scales.- 2.1.1 Scale Structure.- 2.1.2 The Golgi Apparatus and Scale Production.- 2.1.3 Scale Transport and Liberation.- 2.2 Microfibril Deposition in Cellulosic Algae.- 2.2.1 Cladophorales, Siphonocladales.- 2.2.2 Chlorococcales.- 2.2.3 Conjugales (Placoderm Desmids).- 2.3 The Production of Chitin Microfibrils.- 2.3.1 Poterioochromonas.- 2.3.2 Centric Diatoms.- 3 Glycoprotein Wall Formation.- References.- 14 Algal Wall-Degrading Enzymes -.- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.3 Assembly at the Plasma Membrane.- 3.4.4 Deposition of Polysaccharides in the Wall.- 4 Metabolism During Cell Division, Growth, Differentiation, Senescence and Germination.- 4.1 Methodological Considerations and Interpretations.- 4.2 Molecular Strategies in Morphogenesis.- 4.3 Cell Plate Formation.- 4.4 Primary Cell Wall Deposition and Expansion.- 4.5 Secondary Cell Wall Deposition and Growth.- 4.6 Cell Wall Metabolism During Differentiation in Specific Tissues.- 4.6.1 Tracheids, Laticifers, Aerenchyma and Lateral Root Initiation.- 4.6.2 Tyloses.- 4.6.3 Formation of Plasmodesmata and Differentiation of Sieve Plates.- 4.6.4 Gametogenic Tissues.- 4.6.5 Mucilage (Slime)- and Gum-secreting Cells.- 4.7 Senescence.- 4.7.1 Abscission.- 4.7.2 Fruit Senescence.- 4.7.3 Flower and Leaf Senescence.- 4.8 Germination.- 5 Metabolism in Response to Environmental Changes and Pathogenesis.- 5.1 Tropisms.- 5.1.1 Geotropism and Phototropism.- 5.1.2 Reaction Wood.- 5.1.3 Hypogravity.- 5.2 Environmental Stress.- 5.3 Wounding Responses.- 5.4 Pathogenesis.- References.- 7 Glycoproteins and Enzymes of the Cell Wall.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural or Matrix Proteins.- 2.1 Higher and Lower Plants.- 2.1.1 Glycopeptide Linkages.- 2.1.2 Hydroxyproline Glycosides.- 2.1.3 Peptide Sequence and Conformation.- 2.1.4 Role of Glycosylation.- 2.1.5 Assembly.- 2.1.6 Possible Roles for the Matrix Protein Extensin.- 2.2 Algae.- 2.2.1 Occurrence of Matrix Proteins.- 2.2.2 The Chlamydomonas Type Wall.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3 Cell Wall Enzymes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Biological Role.- 3.2.1 Involvement in Cell Wall Assembly and Cell Extension.- 3.2.2 Involvement in Transport.- 3.2.3 Involvement in Recognition Phenomena and Disease Resistance.- 4 Arabinogalactan Proteins (AGP's) and ?-Lectins.- 4.1 General Properties.- 4.2 Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Biosynthesis.- 4.3 Biological Role.- 4.3.1 Water Relations.- 4.3.2 Mechanical Cell-Cell Interactions.- 4.3.3 Cell Recognition.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 The Role of Lipid-Linked Saccharides in the Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of the Lipid Carrier.- 3 Glycoproteins or Other Complex Carbohydrates.- 4 Lipid-linked Monosaccharides.- 4.1 Mannose.- 4.2 Glucose.- 4.3 N-Acetylglucosamine.- 4.4 Other Monosaccharide Lipids.- 5 Oligosaccharide Derivatives.- 6 Protein Glycosylation.- 7 Further Reactions - Processing of Proteins.- 8 Effect of Antibiotics and Other Inhibitors.- 9 Subcellular Location of the Enzymes of the Dolichol Pathway.- 10 Conclusions.- References.- 9 Biosynthesis of Lignin.- 1 Occurrence of Lignin in Plants.- 2 Morphological Distribution of Lignins in Plant Cell Walls.- 3 Biogenesis of Lignin Precursors.- 3.1 Shikimic Acid - Phenylalanine Pathway.- 3.2 Cinnamic Acid Pathway.- 3.2.1 Hydroxylation of Cinnamic Acids.- 3.2.2 Methylation of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 3.2.3 Reduction of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 4 Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols to Lignins.- 4.1 Role of Peroxidase in the Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols (Monolignols) to Lignins.- 4.2 Structural Variation in Dehydrogenation Polymers.- 5 Formation and Distribution of Syringyl Lignin in Angiosperm Woods.- 6 Differences Between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in Lignin Biosynthesis.- 7 Regulation of Lignin Biosynthesis.- References.- 10 Hydrophobic Layers Attached to Cell Walls. Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Location and Ultrastructure of Cutin, Suberin, and Waxes.- 3 Composition and Structure of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.1 Isolation and Depolymerization of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.2 Composition of the Monomers of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.3 Intermolecular Linkages in Cutin and Suberin.- 4 Biosynthesis of Cutin and Suberin.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of the C16 Family of Monomers.- 4.2 Biosynthesis of the C18 Family of Monomers.- 4.3 Synthesis of the Cutin Polymer from Monomers.- 4.4 Biosynthesis of the Aliphatic Components of Suberin.- 4.5 Regulation of Suberization.- 4.6 Site of Synthesis of the Monomers and the Polymers.- 5 Biodegradation of Cutin and Suberin.- 5.1 Fungal Cutinase.- 5.2 Pollen Cutinase.- 6 Isolation and Analysis of Waxes.- 7 Composition of Waxes.- 8 Biosynthesis of Waxes.- 8.1 Biosynthesis of Very Long Fatty Acids.- 8.2 Biosynthesis of Fatty Alcohols.- 8.3 Biosynthesis of Wax Esters.- 8.4 Biosynthesis of Hydrocarbons and Derivatives.- 8.5 Biosynthesis of ?-Diketones.- 9 Function of Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- References.- 11 Wall Extensibility: Hormones and Wall Extension.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellular Parameters Which Control Cell Elongation.- 3 Do Hormones Control Wall Extension via Changes in Wall Extensibility?.- 3.1 WEx and the Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.1 What is WEx?.- 3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.3 Changes in WEx in Vivo.- 3.2 Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.1 Measurement of the Mechanical Properties of Isolated Walls.- 3.2.2 Direct Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.3 Other Mechanical Testing Procedures.- 3.3 Cases Where Hormones Affect WEx.- 3.3.1 Auxin.- 3.3.2 Gibberellin.- 3.3.3 Other Hormones.- 3.3.4 Conclusions.- 4 The Mechanism of Auxin-Induced Wall Loosening.- 4.1 Wall Structure, Wall Synthesis and Wall Loosening.- 4.2 Possible Mechanisms for Wall Loosening.- 4.2.1 Breakage of Hydrogen Bonds.- 4.2.2 Calcium Cross-Links.- 4.2.3 Nonenzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.4 Enzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.5 Conclusions.- References.- II. Cell Walls of Algae and Fungi.- 12 Algal Walls - Composition and Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellulose and Other Glucans.- 2.1 Chlorophyceae.- 2.2 Rhodophyceae.- 2.3 Phaeophyceae.- 2.4 Biosynthesis.- 2.5 (1 ? 3)-?-glucan.- 3 Xylans.- 3.1 Rhodophyceae.- 3.2 Chlorophyceae.- 4 Mannans.- 4.1 Chlorophyceae.- 4.2 Bacillariophyceae.- 5 Alginic Acid.- 5.1 Constitution and Structure.- 5.2 Ion Exchange.- 5.3 Conformation.- 5.4 Gel Formation.- 5.5 Variations in Structure.- 5.6 Biosynthesis.- 6 Galactans.- 6.1 Agar and Related Molecules.- 6.2 Carrageenan and Related Polysaccharides.- 6.3 Conformation.- 6.4 Gametophyte and Sporophyte Carrageenans.- 6.5 Immunochemistry.- 6.6 Cell Wall Localization.- 6.7 Biosynthesis.- 7 Fucans.- 7.1 Structure.- 7.2 Site of Sulfate.- 7.3 Biosynthesis.- 7.4 Location and Function.- 8 Sulfated Polysaccharides of the Chlorophyceae.- 9 Polysaccharides of the Bacillariophyceae.- 10 Extracellular Polysaccharides.- 10.1 From Phaeophyceae.- 10.2 From Rhodophyceae.- 10.3 From the Xanthophyceae.- 10.4 From Bacillariophyceae.- 11 Conclusions.- 11.1 Functions.- 11.2 Taxonomy.- References.- 13 Algal Walls - Cytology of Formation.- 1 Matrix Polysaccharide and Slime Production.- 2 Microfibril Synthesis and Orientation.- 2.1 The Formation and Secretion of Scales.- 2.1.1 Scale Structure.- 2.1.2 The Golgi Apparatus and Scale Production.- 2.1.3 Scale Transport and Liberation.- 2.2 Microfibril Deposition in Cellulosic Algae.- 2.2.1 Cladophorales, Siphonocladales.- 2.2.2 Chlorococcales.- 2.2.3 Conjugales (Placoderm Desmids).- 2.3 The Production of Chitin Microfibrils.- 2.3.1 Poterioochromonas.- 2.3.2 Centric Diatoms.- 3 Glycoprotein Wall Formation.- References.- 14 Algal Wall-Degrading Enzymes - Autolysines.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Autolysines Found in Algae.- 2.1 Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyceae, Volvocales).- 2.1.1 Evidence.- 2.1.2 Specificity of Action.- 2.1.3 Isolation and Properties.- 2.1.4 Regulation.- 2.1.5 Reproduction Cell Release Mechanism.- 2.2 Volvox (Chlorophyceae, Volvocales).- 2.3 Chlorella (Chlorophyceae, Chlorococcales).- 2.4 Geminella (Chlorophyceae, Ulotrichales).- 3 Indication of Autolysine Action in Other Algae.- 3.1 Cell Wall Changes in the Reproduction Phase.- 3.2 Lysis by Exogenous Enzymes.- 3.3 Dependency on Divalent Cations.- 4 Application of Autolysines.- References.- 15 Fungal Cell Walls: A Survey.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Methodological Difficulties.- 2 Survey of Wall Polymers.- 2.1 Distribution Among Fungi.- 2.2 Individual Polymers.- 2.2.1 (1 ? 4)-?-d-Glycosaminoglycans (Chitin, Chitosan).- 2.2.2 (1 ? 4)-?-d-Glucan (Cellulose).- 2.2.3 (1 ? 3)-?-d/(1 ? 6)-?-d-Glucan.- 2.2.4 (1 ? 3)-?-d-Glucan with Variable Amounts of (1 ? 4)-?-Linkages.- 2.2.5 Homo- and Hetero-Glucuronans.- 2.2.6 Glycoproteins.- 3 Ultrastructural Localization of Wall Polymers.- 3.1 Methodological Difficulties.- 3.2 Mature Walls.- 3.2.1 Filamentous Fungi.- 3.2.2 Yeasts.- 3.3 Newly Formed Walls.- 3.3.1 Reverted Protoplasts and Germinated Zoospores.- 3.3.2 Growing Areas of the Wall.- 4 Wall Composition and Cellular Morphology.- 4.1 Does Wall Composition Determine Cellular Morphology?.- 4.2 Changes in Wall Composition Accompanying Changes in Cell Morphology.- 5 Wall-Degrading Enzymes.- 5.1 Wall Components as Substrates for Degrading Enzymes.- 5.2 Net Degradation of Wall Components in Relation to Development.- 5.3 "Wall-Loosening" Enzymes.- 6 Synthesis of the Wall.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Biosynthesis of Individual Wall Components.- 6.2.1 Chitin.- 6.2.2 Glucan.- 6.2.3 Glycoprotein.- 6.3 Wall Synthesis and Morphogenesis.- References.- 16 Chitin: Structure, Metabolism, and Regulation of Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Chemical and Physical Structure.- 3 Distribution and Localization.- 4 The Enzymatic Synthesis of Chitin and its Regulation.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of Precursors.- 4.2 Chitin Synthetase and its Regulation.- 4.2.1 General Properties of Chitin Synthetase.- 4.2.2 Regulation of Chitin Synthetase Activity.- 4.2.3 Subcellular Distribution of Chitin Synthetase.- 5 Chitin Degradation.- 6 Regulation and Localization of Chitin Synthesis in Vivo.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Primary Septum Formation in Budding Yeasts.- 6.3 Hyphal Growth.- 6.4 Chitin Synthesis During Round Cell Formation in Blastocladiella emersonii.- References.- 17 Fungal Glucans - Structure and Metabolism.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Glucans from Yeasts.- 2.1 Cell Envelope Glucans.- 2.1.1 Structure.- 2.1.2 Degradation.- 3 Glucans from Filamentous Fungi.- 3.1 Structure.- 3.1.1 ?-Linked Glucans.- 3.1.2 ?-Linked Glucans.- 3.2 Fungal Glucanases and Glucan Degradation.- 4 Biosynthesis.- References.- 18 Mannoproteins: Structure.- 1 Definition and Occurrence.- 2 Isolation and Criteria of Homogeneity.- 3 Methods for Structural Analysis.- 3.1 Selective Chemical Degradations.- 3.2 Selective Enzymic Degradations.- 3.3 Mutant Analysis.- 3.4 Immunochemical Methods.- 3.5 Physical Methods.- 4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mannoprotein.- 4.1 Bulk Cell Wall Mannoprotein.- 4.2 Characteristics of Mannan Mutants.- 4.3 Invertase, an Example of a "Homogeneous" Extracellular Glycoprotein.- 4.4 Carboxypeptidase Y, an Example of a "Homogeneous".- References.- 3 The Assembly of Polysaccharide Fibrils.- References.- 4 Ultrastructure of the Plant Cell Wall: Biochemical Viewpoint.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Microfibrillar Component.- 3 Matrix Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 3.1 Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.1 Xylans.- 3.1.2 Mixed ?-Glucans.- 3.1.3 Xyloglucans.- 3.1.4 Glucomannans.- 3.2 Pectic Polysaccharides.- 3.2.1 Rhamnogalacturonan.- 3.2.2 Arabinogalactans.- 3.2.3 Arabinans and Galactans.- 3.3 Glycoprotein of the Walls.- 3.4 Lignin.- 4 Polysaccharidic Association Within the Primary Cell Wall.- 4.1 Dicot Primary Cell Walls.- 4.2 Monocot Primary Cell Walls.- 5 Chemical Changes in the Cell Wall During Growth and Differentiation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 5 Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Cellulose and Noncellulosic Cell Wall Glucans.- 1 Introduction: Various Aspects of Cellulose Formation in Vivo and in Vitro.- 2 Possible Substrates for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 2.1 Occurrence of NDP-Sugars (Sugar Nucleotides) in Tissues Actively Forming Cell Walls.- 2.2 Sucrose Synthetase and Pyrophosphorylase Activities.- 2.3 Different NDP-Glucoses as Hypothetical Substrates for the in Vitro Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 2.4 In Vivo Studies on Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 3 Primer Requirement for Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 4 Involvement of Lipid-Intermediates in Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5 Endogenous and Exogenous Factors Which Might Influence the Biosynthesis of Cellulose.- 5.1 Hormonal Control of Cellulose Biosynthesis.- 5.2 Inhibitors in the Process of Cellulose Formation.- 6 Conclusion.- References.- 6 Metabolism of Noncellulosic Polysaccharides.- 1 Cell Walls and Cell Wall Metabolism.- 2 Molecular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis.- 2.1 Origins of Monosaccharides and Their Activated Forms.- 2.2 Polysaccharide Assembly.- 2.2.1 Polymerizing Systems.- 2.2.2 Lipid-Saccharide Intermediates.- 2.2.3 Chain Initiation.- 2.2.4 Chain Elongation and Direction of Growth.- 2.2.5 Sequences of Linkages and Monosaccharides, and Insertion of Side Branches.- 2.2.6 Chain Termination.- 2.3 Biosynthesis of Glycosyl Ethers and Esters.- 2.4 Control.- 2.4.1 Supply of Monosaccharide Precursors.- 2.4.2 Activation and Interconversion of Monosaccharides.- 2.4.3 Polymerization.- 3 Cellular Aspects of Polysaccharide Synthesis and Processing.- 3.1 Location of Enzymes Leading to the Establishment of the Nucleotide Sugar Pool.- 3.2 Location of Glycosyl Transferases Involving Lipid Intermediates.- 3.3 Location of Polysaccharide Synthetases.- 3.4 Subcellular Routes of Polysaccharide Assembly.- 3.4.1 Golgi Dictyosome - Golgi Vesicle - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Plasma Membrane Route.- 3.4.3 Assembly at the Plasma Membrane.- 3.4.4 Deposition of Polysaccharides in the Wall.- 4 Metabolism During Cell Division, Growth, Differentiation, Senescence and Germination.- 4.1 Methodological Considerations and Interpretations.- 4.2 Molecular Strategies in Morphogenesis.- 4.3 Cell Plate Formation.- 4.4 Primary Cell Wall Deposition and Expansion.- 4.5 Secondary Cell Wall Deposition and Growth.- 4.6 Cell Wall Metabolism During Differentiation in Specific Tissues.- 4.6.1 Tracheids, Laticifers, Aerenchyma and Lateral Root Initiation.- 4.6.2 Tyloses.- 4.6.3 Formation of Plasmodesmata and Differentiation of Sieve Plates.- 4.6.4 Gametogenic Tissues.- 4.6.5 Mucilage (Slime)- and Gum-secreting Cells.- 4.7 Senescence.- 4.7.1 Abscission.- 4.7.2 Fruit Senescence.- 4.7.3 Flower and Leaf Senescence.- 4.8 Germination.- 5 Metabolism in Response to Environmental Changes and Pathogenesis.- 5.1 Tropisms.- 5.1.1 Geotropism and Phototropism.- 5.1.2 Reaction Wood.- 5.1.3 Hypogravity.- 5.2 Environmental Stress.- 5.3 Wounding Responses.- 5.4 Pathogenesis.- References.- 7 Glycoproteins and Enzymes of the Cell Wall.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural or Matrix Proteins.- 2.1 Higher and Lower Plants.- 2.1.1 Glycopeptide Linkages.- 2.1.2 Hydroxyproline Glycosides.- 2.1.3 Peptide Sequence and Conformation.- 2.1.4 Role of Glycosylation.- 2.1.5 Assembly.- 2.1.6 Possible Roles for the Matrix Protein Extensin.- 2.2 Algae.- 2.2.1 Occurrence of Matrix Proteins.- 2.2.2 The Chlamydomonas Type Wall.- 2.2.3 Phylogenetic Considerations.- 3 Cell Wall Enzymes.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Biological Role.- 3.2.1 Involvement in Cell Wall Assembly and Cell Extension.- 3.2.2 Involvement in Transport.- 3.2.3 Involvement in Recognition Phenomena and Disease Resistance.- 4 Arabinogalactan Proteins (AGP's) and ?-Lectins.- 4.1 General Properties.- 4.2 Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Biosynthesis.- 4.3 Biological Role.- 4.3.1 Water Relations.- 4.3.2 Mechanical Cell-Cell Interactions.- 4.3.3 Cell Recognition.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 The Role of Lipid-Linked Saccharides in the Biosynthesis of Complex Carbohydrates.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nature of the Lipid Carrier.- 3 Glycoproteins or Other Complex Carbohydrates.- 4 Lipid-linked Monosaccharides.- 4.1 Mannose.- 4.2 Glucose.- 4.3 N-Acetylglucosamine.- 4.4 Other Monosaccharide Lipids.- 5 Oligosaccharide Derivatives.- 6 Protein Glycosylation.- 7 Further Reactions - Processing of Proteins.- 8 Effect of Antibiotics and Other Inhibitors.- 9 Subcellular Location of the Enzymes of the Dolichol Pathway.- 10 Conclusions.- References.- 9 Biosynthesis of Lignin.- 1 Occurrence of Lignin in Plants.- 2 Morphological Distribution of Lignins in Plant Cell Walls.- 3 Biogenesis of Lignin Precursors.- 3.1 Shikimic Acid - Phenylalanine Pathway.- 3.2 Cinnamic Acid Pathway.- 3.2.1 Hydroxylation of Cinnamic Acids.- 3.2.2 Methylation of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 3.2.3 Reduction of Hydroxycinnamic Acids.- 4 Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols to Lignins.- 4.1 Role of Peroxidase in the Dehydrogenative Polymerization of Hydroxycinnamyl Alcohols (Monolignols) to Lignins.- 4.2 Structural Variation in Dehydrogenation Polymers.- 5 Formation and Distribution of Syringyl Lignin in Angiosperm Woods.- 6 Differences Between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in Lignin Biosynthesis.- 7 Regulation of Lignin Biosynthesis.- References.- 10 Hydrophobic Layers Attached to Cell Walls. Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Location and Ultrastructure of Cutin, Suberin, and Waxes.- 3 Composition and Structure of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.1 Isolation and Depolymerization of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.2 Composition of the Monomers of Cutin and Suberin.- 3.3 Intermolecular Linkages in Cutin and Suberin.- 4 Biosynthesis of Cutin and Suberin.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of the C16 Family of Monomers.- 4.2 Biosynthesis of the C18 Family of Monomers.- 4.3 Synthesis of the Cutin Polymer from Monomers.- 4.4 Biosynthesis of the Aliphatic Components of Suberin.- 4.5 Regulation of Suberization.- 4.6 Site of Synthesis of the Monomers and the Polymers.- 5 Biodegradation of Cutin and Suberin.- 5.1 Fungal Cutinase.- 5.2 Pollen Cutinase.- 6 Isolation and Analysis of Waxes.- 7 Composition of Waxes.- 8 Biosynthesis of Waxes.- 8.1 Biosynthesis of Very Long Fatty Acids.- 8.2 Biosynthesis of Fatty Alcohols.- 8.3 Biosynthesis of Wax Esters.- 8.4 Biosynthesis of Hydrocarbons and Derivatives.- 8.5 Biosynthesis of ?-Diketones.- 9 Function of Cutin, Suberin and Associated Waxes.- References.- 11 Wall Extensibility: Hormones and Wall Extension.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellular Parameters Which Control Cell Elongation.- 3 Do Hormones Control Wall Extension via Changes in Wall Extensibility?.- 3.1 WEx and the Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.1 What is WEx?.- 3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls.- 3.1.3 Changes in WEx in Vivo.- 3.2 Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.1 Measurement of the Mechanical Properties of Isolated Walls.- 3.2.2 Direct Measurement of WEx.- 3.2.3 Other Mechanical Testing Procedures.- 3.3 Cases Where Hormones Affect WEx.- 3.3.1 Auxin.- 3.3.2 Gibberellin.- 3.3.3 Other Hormones.- 3.3.4 Conclusions.- 4 The Mechanism of Auxin-Induced Wall Loosening.- 4.1 Wall Structure, Wall Synthesis and Wall Loosening.- 4.2 Possible Mechanisms for Wall Loosening.- 4.2.1 Breakage of Hydrogen Bonds.- 4.2.2 Calcium Cross-Links.- 4.2.3 Nonenzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.4 Enzymatic Wall Loosening.- 4.2.5 Conclusions.- References.- II. Cell Walls of Algae and Fungi.- 12 Algal Walls - Composition and Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cellulose and Other Glucans.- 2.1 Chlorophyceae.- 2.2 Rhodophyceae.- 2.3 Phaeophyceae.- 2.4 Biosynthesis.- 2.5 (1 ? 3)-?-glucan.- 3 Xylans.- 3.1 Rhodophyceae.- 3.2 Chlorophyceae.- 4 Mannans.- 4.1 Chlorophyceae.- 4.2 Bacillariophyceae.- 5 Alginic Acid.- 5.1 Constitution and Structure.- 5.2 Ion Exchange.- 5.3 Conformation.- 5.4 Gel Formation.- 5.5 Variations in Structure.- 5.6 Biosynthesis.- 6 Galactans.- 6.1 Agar and Related Molecules.- 6.2 Carrageenan and Related Polysaccharides.- 6.3 Conformation.- 6.4 Gametophyte and Sporophyte Carrageenans.- 6.5 Immunochemistry.- 6.6 Cell Wall Localization.- 6.7 Biosynthesis.- 7 Fucans.- 7.1 Structure.- 7.2 Site of Sulfate.- 7.3 Biosynthesis.- 7.4 Location and Function.- 8 Sulfated Polysaccharides of the Chlorophyceae.- 9 Polysaccharides of the Bacillariophyceae.- 10 Extracellular Polysaccharides.- 10.1 From Phaeophyceae.- 10.2 From Rhodophyceae.- 10.3 From the Xanthophyceae.- 10.4 From Bacillariophyceae.- 11 Conclusions.- 11.1 Functions.- 11.2 Taxonomy.- References.- 13 Algal Walls - Cytology of Formation.- 1 Matrix Polysaccharide and Slime Production.- 2 Microfibril Synthesis and Orientation.- 2.1 The Formation and Secretion of Scales.- 2.1.1 Scale Structure.- 2.1.2 The Golgi Apparatus and Scale Production.- 2.1.3 Scale Transport and Liberation.- 2.2 Microfibril Deposition in Cellulosic Algae.- 2.2.1 Cladophorales, Siphonocladales.- 2.2.2 Chlorococcales.- 2.2.3 Conjugales (Placoderm Desmids).- 2.3 The Production of Chitin Microfibrils.- 2.3.1 Poterioochromonas.- 2.3.2 Centric Diatoms.- 3 Glycoprotein Wall Formation.- References.- 14 Algal Wall-Degrading Enzymes - Autolysines.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Autolysines Found in Algae.- 2.1 Chlamydomonas (Chlorophyceae, Volvocales).- 2.1.1 Evidence.- 2.1.2 Specificity of Action.- 2.1.3 Isolation and Properties.- 2.1.4 Regulation.- 2.1.5 Reproduction Cell Release Mechanism.- 2.2 Volvox (Chlorophyceae, Volvocales).- 2.3 Chlorella (Chlorophyceae, Chlorococcales).- 2.4 Geminella (Chlorophyceae, Ulotrichales).- 3 Indication of Autolysine Action in Other Algae.- 3.1 Cell Wall Changes in the Reproduction Phase.- 3.2 Lysis by Exogenous Enzymes.- 3.3 Dependency on Divalent Cations.- 4 Application of Autolysines.- References.- 15 Fungal Cell Walls: A Survey.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Methodological Difficulties.- 2 Survey of Wall Polymers.- 2.1 Distribution Among Fungi.- 2.2 Individual Polymers.- 2.2.1 (1 ? 4)-?-d-Glycosaminoglycans (Chitin, Chitosan).- 2.2.2 (1 ? 4)-?-d-Glucan (Cellulose).- 2.2.3 (1 ? 3)-?-d/(1 ? 6)-?-d-Glucan.- 2.2.4 (1 ? 3)-?-d-Glucan with Variable Amounts of (1 ? 4)-?-Linkages.- 2.2.5 Homo- and Hetero-Glucuronans.- 2.2.6 Glycoproteins.- 3 Ultrastructural Localization of Wall Polymers.- 3.1 Methodological Difficulties.- 3.2 Mature Walls.- 3.2.1 Filamentous Fungi.- 3.2.2 Yeasts.- 3.3 Newly Formed Walls.- 3.3.1 Reverted Protoplasts and Germinated Zoospores.- 3.3.2 Growing Areas of the Wall.- 4 Wall Composition and Cellular Morphology.- 4.1 Does Wall Composition Determine Cellular Morphology?.- 4.2 Changes in Wall Composition Accompanying Changes in Cell Morphology.- 5 Wall-Degrading Enzymes.- 5.1 Wall Components as Substrates for Degrading Enzymes.- 5.2 Net Degradation of Wall Components in Relation to Development.- 5.3 "Wall-Loosening" Enzymes.- 6 Synthesis of the Wall.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Biosynthesis of Individual Wall Components.- 6.2.1 Chitin.- 6.2.2 Glucan.- 6.2.3 Glycoprotein.- 6.3 Wall Synthesis and Morphogenesis.- References.- 16 Chitin: Structure, Metabolism, and Regulation of Biosynthesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Chemical and Physical Structure.- 3 Distribution and Localization.- 4 The Enzymatic Synthesis of Chitin and its Regulation.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of Precursors.- 4.2 Chitin Synthetase and its Regulation.- 4.2.1 General Properties of Chitin Synthetase.- 4.2.2 Regulation of Chitin Synthetase Activity.- 4.2.3 Subcellular Distribution of Chitin Synthetase.- 5 Chitin Degradation.- 6 Regulation and Localization of Chitin Synthesis in Vivo.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Primary Septum Formation in Budding Yeasts.- 6.3 Hyphal Growth.- 6.4 Chitin Synthesis During Round Cell Formation in Blastocladiella emersonii.- References.- 17 Fungal Glucans - Structure and Metabolism.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Glucans from Yeasts.- 2.1 Cell Envelope Glucans.- 2.1.1 Structure.- 2.1.2 Degradation.- 3 Glucans from Filamentous Fungi.- 3.1 Structure.- 3.1.1 ?-Linked Glucans.- 3.1.2 ?-Linked Glucans.- 3.2 Fungal Glucanases and Glucan Degradation.- 4 Biosynthesis.- References.- 18 Mannoproteins: Structure.- 1 Definition and Occurrence.- 2 Isolation and Criteria of Homogeneity.- 3 Methods for Structural Analysis.- 3.1 Selective Chemical Degradations.- 3.2 Selective Enzymic Degradations.- 3.3 Mutant Analysis.- 3.4 Immunochemical Methods.- 3.5 Physical Methods.- 4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mannoprotein.- 4.1 Bulk Cell Wall Mannoprotein.- 4.2 Characteristics of Mannan Mutants.- 4.3 Invertase, an Example of a "Homogeneous" Extracellular Glycoprotein.- 4.4 Carboxypeptidase Y, an Example of a "Homogeneous" Intracellular Mannoprotein.- 5 Hansenula wingei Sexual Agglutination Factors.- 5.1 Description of the Mating Reaction in Yeasts.- 5.2 Isolation and Structure of the 5-Cell Agglutinin.- 5.3 Isolation and Structure of 21-Factor.- 5.4 Comparison with Agglutination Factors in Other Yeasts.- References.- 19 Biosynthesis of Mannoproteins in Fungi.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Biosynthesis of Mannoproteins in Saccharomyces Species.- 2.1 Early in Vitro Studies with Guanosine Diphosphate Mannose.- 2.2 Participation of Lipid-Linked Intermediates.- 2.2.1 Identification of the Glycosylated Lipid Intermediate.- 2.2.2 Role of Dolichyl Monophosphate in the Formation of Mannooligosaccharide Chains Linked Through the Hydroxyl Group of Serine and Threonine.- 2.2.3 Role of Dolichyl Diphosphate-Linked Oligosaccharides in the Formation of the Core Structure Containing the N-Acetylglucosaminyl-Asparagine Linkage.- 2.3 Mannosyl Transfer Reactions Involved in the Assembly of the Outer Chain Structure.- 3 Biosynthesis of Mannoproteins in Other Species.- 3.1 Hansenula Species.- 3.2 Kuyveromyces lactis.- 3.3 Cryptococcus laurentii.- 3.4 Aspergillus Species.- 3.5 Penicillium Species.- 3.6 Other Species.- 4 Subcellular Sites of Glycosylation.- 5 Possible Control of Mannoprotein Biosynthesis.- 6 Attempts to Study Solubilized Glycosyl Transferases.- 7 A Summary of Mannoprotein Biosynthesis
  • How It Might Occur: a Model.- References.- III. Export of Carbohydrate Material.- 20 Secretory Processes - General Considerations and Secretion in Fungi.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Synthesis and Segregation of Export Polymers.- 2.1 The Signal Hypothesis.- 2.1.1 Mammalian Cells.- 2.1.2 Bacteria.- 2.1.3 Fungi.- 2.2 Mechanisms of Glycosylation.- 2.2.1 Mammalian Cells.- 2.2.2 Fungi.- 3 Transport of Secretion Products.- 3.1 Mammalian Cells.- 3.2 Fungi.- 4 Discharge of Secretion Products.- 5 Synthesis and Secretion of Cell Wall Polysaccharides.- 6 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 21 Secretion of Cell Wall Material in Higher Plants.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cell Plate Formation.- 2.1 Role of the Phragmoplast.- 2.2 Role of Organelles.- 3 Secretion of Primary Wall Matrix Substances.- 4 Secretion of Microfibrils.- 4.1 Site of Synthesis.- 4.2 Mechanism of Synthesis.- 4.3 Control of Microfibril Orientation.- 4.4 Cellulose Secretion by Acetobacter xylinum.- 5 Cell Wall Assembly.- 6 Secretion of Lipidic Wall Materials.- 6.1 The Cuticle.- 6.2 Epicuticular Waxes.- 6.3 Suberinized Layers.- References.- 22 Secretory Activity of the Root Cap.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Root Cap Architecture and Root Cap Secretory Activity.- 2.1 Occurrence and Localization of Secretory Cells in the Root Cap.- 2.2 Life and Differentiation of Secretory Cells.- 2.3 Ultrastructure of Secretory Cells.- 3 Characteristics of the Secretory Products.- 3.1 Collection and Chemical Analysis of Root Cap Slimes.- 3.1.1 Monosaccharide Components.- 3.1.2 Other Components.- 3.2 Structure of Root Cap Slimes.- 3.3 In Situ Identification of Slime Components.- 4 Secretory Pathways.- 4.1 Biosynthesis of Slime Polysaccharides.- 4.2 Transport via Granulocrine Process.- 4.3 Slime Discharge.- 4.4 Model of Secretion.- 5 Physiology of the Secretion Processes.- 5.1 Control of the Polysaccharide Droplet Formation and Size.- 5.2 Control of Vesicle Production and Discharge.- 5.3 Characteristics of the Secretory Cycle.- 5.4 Participation of Enzymes in the Secretion Processes.- 6 Function of the Root Cap Slime.- 6.1 Slime as a Constituent of Mucigel.- 6.2 Function of the Mucigel at the Root Level.- 6.3 Function of Mucigel at the Root-Soil Interface.- 6.3.1 Slime and Sloughed Cells as a Source of Organic Carbon and Nitrogen in the Rhizosphere.- 6.3.2 Action of the Mucigel on Soil Aggregation and Stability.- 6.3.3 Role of Root Cap Slime on Microbial Colonization.- 7 Concluding Remarks.- References.- IV. Cell Surface Phenomena.- 23 Defined Components Involved in Pollination.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Arabinogalactans as Pistil Components of Gladiolus and Lilium.- 3 S-Allele Associated Style Components.- 4 Callose as a Response to Self-Incompatible Matings.- 5 Callose as a Pollen Tube Wall Component.- References.- 24 Carbohydrates in Plant - Pathogen Interactions.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Role of Polysaccharides in the Early Interactions Between Plant and Pathogen.- 2.1 Role of Recognition in Plant - General Considerations and Secretion in Fungi.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Synthesis and Segregation of Export Polymers.- 2.1 The Signal Hypothesis.- 2.1.1 Mammalian Cells.- 2.1.2 Bacteria.- 2.1.3 Fungi.- 2.2 Mechanisms of Glycosylation.- 2.2.1 Mammalian Cells.- 2.2.2 Fungi.- 3 Transport of Secretio

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