Structure, biochemistry and physiology of proteins
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Structure, biochemistry and physiology of proteins
(Encyclopedia of plant physiology. New series, v. 14 A . Nucleic acids and proteins in plants ; 1)
Springer-Verlag, 1982
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Description and Table of Contents
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Table of Contents
- I. Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Protein Amino Acids and Proteins.- 1 Ammonia Assimilation and Amino Acid Metabolism.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ammonia Assimilation and Transamination.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Enzymes Involved in the Glutamate Synthase Cycle.- 2.3 Evidence for the Glutamate Synthase Cycle.- 2.3.1 Assimilation in Leaves.- 2.3.2 Green Algae.- 2.3.3 Roots and Tissue Culture.- 2.3.4 Maturing Seeds.- 2.3.5 Legume Root Nodules.- 2.4 Alternative Pathways of Ammonia Assimilation.- 2.5 Localization of Ammonia Assimilation.- 2.5.1 Enzyme Distribution.- 2.5.2 Studies with Isolated Organelles.- 2.6 Regulation.- 3 Transamination.- 4 Biosynthesis of the Other Amino Acids.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Synthesis of Amino Acids Derived from Pyruvate.- 4.2.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.2.2 Subcellular Localization.- 4.2.3 Regulation.- 4.3 Synthesis of Amino Acids Derived from Glutamate.- 4.3.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.3.2 In Vivo Studies.- 4.3.3 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.3.4 Regulation.- 4.4 Synthesis of the Aspartate Family of Amino Acids.- 4.4.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.4.2 Subcellular Localization.- 4.4.3 Regulation.- 4.5 Synthesis of Glycine, Serine and Cysteine.- 4.5.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.5.2 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.5.3 Regulation.- 4.6 Synthesis of the Aromatic Amino Acids.- 4.6.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.6.2 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.6.3 Regulation.- 4.7 Synthesis of Histidine.- 5 Amino Acid Catabolism.- 5.1 Photorespiration.- 5.2 Nitrogen Transport Compounds.- 5.2.1 Asparagine.- 5.2.2 Ureides.- 5.2.3 Arginine.- References.- 2 Transfer RNA and Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases in Plants.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Transfer RNA's (tRNA's).- 2.1 Occurrence and Intracellular Localization of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2 Extraction, Fractionation and Purification of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2.1 Extraction of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2.2 Fractionation and Purification of Plant tRNA's.- 2.3 Structure of Plant tRNA's.- 2.3.1 New Methods for Sequence Determination.- 2.3.2 Structure of Plant Cytoplasmic tRNA's.- 2.3.3 Structure of Chloroplastic tRNA's.- 2.4 Organization and Expression of tRNA Genes in Nuclear and Organellar Genomes.- 2.4.1 tRNA Genes in the Nuclear Genome.- 2.4.2 tRNA Genes in the Chloroplast Genome.- 2.4.3 tRNA Genes in the Plant Mitochondrial Genome.- 2.4.4 Biosynthesis of Plant tRNA's.- 2.5 Functions of tRNA's.- 2.5.1 Role of tRNA's in Protein Biosynthesis.- 2.5.2 Other Biological Functions of tRNA's.- 2.6 tRNA's and Plant Development.- 3 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases.- 3.1 Preparation, Fractionation and Purification of the Enzymes.- 3.2 Intracellular Localization and Enzyme Heterogeneity.- 3.3 Functional and Molecular Properties.- 3.3.1 Assays of Activity.- 3.3.2 Kinetic Parameters.- 3.3.3 Molecular Structure and Stability.- 3.4 Substrate Specificities.- 3.4.1 Transfer RNA.- 3.4.2 Amino Acids.- 3.4.3 ATP.- 3.5 Biosynthesis of Synthetases.- 3.6 Synthetases and Developmental Processes.- References.- 3 Ribosomes, Polysomes and the Translation Process.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribosomes.- 3 Translation.- 4 The Genetic Code and Messenger RNA.- 5 Synthesis of Aminoacyl-tRNA.- 6 Synthesis of the Protein Chain.- 6.1 Initiation.- 6.2 Elongation.- 6.3 Termination.- 7 Regulation of Protein Synthesis.- 8 Epilogue.- References.- 4 Post-Translational Modifications.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cleavage of N-Terminal Amino Acids.- 3 Secondary and Tertiary Structure.- 3.1 Quaternary Structure.- 4 Modification of Protein Amino Acids.- 4.1 Methylation.- 4.2 Phosphorylation.- 4.3 ADP-Ribosylation.- 4.4 Hydroxylation.- 4.5 Acetylation.- 4.6 Non-Protein Amino Acids.- 5 Conjugated Proteins.- 5.1 Haemoproteins.- 5.2 Porphyroproteins.- 5.3 Flavoproteins.- 5.4 Metalloproteins.- 6 Metalloenzymes.- 7 Glycoproteins.- 7.1 O-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.1.1 Arabinogalactan-Proteins.- 7.2 Yeast Mannan.- 7.3 N-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.4 Miscellaneous Glycoproteins.- 7.5 Formation of the O-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 7.6 Formation of N-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 8 Compartmentalization and Organelle Biogenesis.- 8.1 Mitochondria.- 8.2 Chloroplasts.- 8.3 Glyoxysomes.- 8.4 Protein Bodies - Cereal Endosperm.- 8.4.1 Protein Bodies -I. Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Protein Amino Acids and Proteins.- 1 Ammonia Assimilation and Amino Acid Metabolism.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ammonia Assimilation and Transamination.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Enzymes Involved in the Glutamate Synthase Cycle.- 2.3 Evidence for the Glutamate Synthase Cycle.- 2.3.1 Assimilation in Leaves.- 2.3.2 Green Algae.- 2.3.3 Roots and Tissue Culture.- 2.3.4 Maturing Seeds.- 2.3.5 Legume Root Nodules.- 2.4 Alternative Pathways of Ammonia Assimilation.- 2.5 Localization of Ammonia Assimilation.- 2.5.1 Enzyme Distribution.- 2.5.2 Studies with Isolated Organelles.- 2.6 Regulation.- 3 Transamination.- 4 Biosynthesis of the Other Amino Acids.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Synthesis of Amino Acids Derived from Pyruvate.- 4.2.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.2.2 Subcellular Localization.- 4.2.3 Regulation.- 4.3 Synthesis of Amino Acids Derived from Glutamate.- 4.3.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.3.2 In Vivo Studies.- 4.3.3 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.3.4 Regulation.- 4.4 Synthesis of the Aspartate Family of Amino Acids.- 4.4.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.4.2 Subcellular Localization.- 4.4.3 Regulation.- 4.5 Synthesis of Glycine, Serine and Cysteine.- 4.5.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.5.2 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.5.3 Regulation.- 4.6 Synthesis of the Aromatic Amino Acids.- 4.6.1 Enzymic Evidence.- 4.6.2 Sub-Cellular Localization.- 4.6.3 Regulation.- 4.7 Synthesis of Histidine.- 5 Amino Acid Catabolism.- 5.1 Photorespiration.- 5.2 Nitrogen Transport Compounds.- 5.2.1 Asparagine.- 5.2.2 Ureides.- 5.2.3 Arginine.- References.- 2 Transfer RNA and Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases in Plants.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Transfer RNA's (tRNA's).- 2.1 Occurrence and Intracellular Localization of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2 Extraction, Fractionation and Purification of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2.1 Extraction of Plant tRNA's.- 2.2.2 Fractionation and Purification of Plant tRNA's.- 2.3 Structure of Plant tRNA's.- 2.3.1 New Methods for Sequence Determination.- 2.3.2 Structure of Plant Cytoplasmic tRNA's.- 2.3.3 Structure of Chloroplastic tRNA's.- 2.4 Organization and Expression of tRNA Genes in Nuclear and Organellar Genomes.- 2.4.1 tRNA Genes in the Nuclear Genome.- 2.4.2 tRNA Genes in the Chloroplast Genome.- 2.4.3 tRNA Genes in the Plant Mitochondrial Genome.- 2.4.4 Biosynthesis of Plant tRNA's.- 2.5 Functions of tRNA's.- 2.5.1 Role of tRNA's in Protein Biosynthesis.- 2.5.2 Other Biological Functions of tRNA's.- 2.6 tRNA's and Plant Development.- 3 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases.- 3.1 Preparation, Fractionation and Purification of the Enzymes.- 3.2 Intracellular Localization and Enzyme Heterogeneity.- 3.3 Functional and Molecular Properties.- 3.3.1 Assays of Activity.- 3.3.2 Kinetic Parameters.- 3.3.3 Molecular Structure and Stability.- 3.4 Substrate Specificities.- 3.4.1 Transfer RNA.- 3.4.2 Amino Acids.- 3.4.3 ATP.- 3.5 Biosynthesis of Synthetases.- 3.6 Synthetases and Developmental Processes.- References.- 3 Ribosomes, Polysomes and the Translation Process.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribosomes.- 3 Translation.- 4 The Genetic Code and Messenger RNA.- 5 Synthesis of Aminoacyl-tRNA.- 6 Synthesis of the Protein Chain.- 6.1 Initiation.- 6.2 Elongation.- 6.3 Termination.- 7 Regulation of Protein Synthesis.- 8 Epilogue.- References.- 4 Post-Translational Modifications.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cleavage of N-Terminal Amino Acids.- 3 Secondary and Tertiary Structure.- 3.1 Quaternary Structure.- 4 Modification of Protein Amino Acids.- 4.1 Methylation.- 4.2 Phosphorylation.- 4.3 ADP-Ribosylation.- 4.4 Hydroxylation.- 4.5 Acetylation.- 4.6 Non-Protein Amino Acids.- 5 Conjugated Proteins.- 5.1 Haemoproteins.- 5.2 Porphyroproteins.- 5.3 Flavoproteins.- 5.4 Metalloproteins.- 6 Metalloenzymes.- 7 Glycoproteins.- 7.1 O-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.1.1 Arabinogalactan-Proteins.- 7.2 Yeast Mannan.- 7.3 N-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.4 Miscellaneous Glycoproteins.- 7.5 Formation of the O-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 7.6 Formation of N-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 8 Compartmentalization and Organelle Biogenesis.- 8.1 Mitochondria.- 8.2 Chloroplasts.- 8.3 Glyoxysomes.- 8.4 Protein Bodies - Cereal Endosperm.- 8.4.1 Protein Bodies - Legume Seeds.- 8.5 Vacuolar Proteins.- 8.6 Secreted Proteins.- 9 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Protein Degradation.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Proteolysis in Germinating Seeds.- 2.1 The Role of Protein Bodies.- 2.2 Localization of Proteases in Protein Bodies.- 2.3 Regulation of Proteolysis in Protein Bodies.- 2.4 Autophagic Function of Protein Bodies.- 3 Protein Degradation in Leaves.- 3.1 Leaf Proteases.- 3.2 Proteases and the Degradation of Leaf Protein.- 3.3 Degradation of Chloroplastic Protein.- 4 Yeast.- 4.1 Proteolysis in Bakers' Yeast.- 4.2 The Proteolytic System of Yeast.- 4.3 Compartmentation of Proteolysis.- 5 Concepts of Protein Degradation.- References.- 6 Physiological Aspects of Protein Turnover.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Measurement of Protein Turnover.- 2.1 The Measurement of Gross Protein Synthesis.- 2.2 The Measurement of Protein Degradation.- 2.2.1 Density Labelling.- 2.2.2 The Use of Tritiated Water (3H2O).- 2.2.3 The Double Isotope Method for Measuring Relative Rates of Protein Degradation.- 3 The Contribution of Protein Turnover to Respiration.- 4 Protein Turnover During Seed Germination.- 4.1 Protein Degradation.- 4.1.1 Proteinase Inhibitors.- 4.1.2 Activation of Zymogens.- 4.1.3 De Novo Synthesis of Endopeptidases.- 4.2 Protein Synthesis.- 5 Protein Turnover During Active Growth.- 6 The Measurement of Enzyme Turnover.- 6.1 Determination of the Rate Constant of Degradation from Changes in Enzyme Activity.- 6.2 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Density Labelling.- 6.3 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Immunology.- 7 Protein Turnover During Senescence.- 7.1 Protein Synthesis in Senescing Leaves.- 7.2 Protein Synthesis in Ripening Fruit.- 7.3 Protein Degradation During Senescence.- 8 The Specificity of Protein Degradation.- 8.1 Correlation with Size.- 8.2 Correlation with Charge.- 8.3 Correlation with "Abnormality"s and Plant Development.- 3 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases.- 3.1 Preparation, Fractionation and Purification of the Enzymes.- 3.2 Intracellular Localization and Enzyme Heterogeneity.- 3.3 Functional and Molecular Properties.- 3.3.1 Assays of Activity.- 3.3.2 Kinetic Parameters.- 3.3.3 Molecular Structure and Stability.- 3.4 Substrate Specificities.- 3.4.1 Transfer RNA.- 3.4.2 Amino Acids.- 3.4.3 ATP.- 3.5 Biosynthesis of Synthetases.- 3.6 Synthetases and Developmental Processes.- References.- 3 Ribosomes, Polysomes and the Translation Process.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribosomes.- 3 Translation.- 4 The Genetic Code and Messenger RNA.- 5 Synthesis of Aminoacyl-tRNA.- 6 Synthesis of the Protein Chain.- 6.1 Initiation.- 6.2 Elongation.- 6.3 Termination.- 7 Regulation of Protein Synthesis.- 8 Epilogue.- References.- 4 Post-Translational Modifications.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cleavage of N-Terminal Amino Acids.- 3 Secondary and Tertiary Structure.- 3.1 Quaternary Structure.- 4 Modification of Protein Amino Acids.- 4.1 Methylation.- 4.2 Phosphorylation.- 4.3 ADP-Ribosylation.- 4.4 Hydroxylation.- 4.5 Acetylation.- 4.6 Non-Protein Amino Acids.- 5 Conjugated Proteins.- 5.1 Haemoproteins.- 5.2 Porphyroproteins.- 5.3 Flavoproteins.- 5.4 Metalloproteins.- 6 Metalloenzymes.- 7 Glycoproteins.- 7.1 O-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.1.1 Arabinogalactan-Proteins.- 7.2 Yeast Mannan.- 7.3 N-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.4 Miscellaneous Glycoproteins.- 7.5 Formation of the O-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 7.6 Formation of N-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 8 Compartmentalization and Organelle Biogenesis.- 8.1 Mitochondria.- 8.2 Chloroplasts.- 8.3 Glyoxysomes.- 8.4 Protein Bodies - Cereal Endosperm.- 8.4.1 Protein Bodies - Legume Seeds.- 8.5 Vacuolar Proteins.- 8.6 Secreted Proteins.- 9 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Protein Degradation.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Proteolysis in Germinating Seeds.- 2.1 The Role of Protein Bodies.- 2.2 Localization of Proteases in Protein Bodies.- 2.3 Regulation of Proteolysis in Protein Bodies.- 2.4 Autophagic Function of Protein Bodies.- 3 Protein Degradation in Leaves.- 3.1 Leaf Proteases.- 3.2 Proteases and the Degradation of Leaf Protein.- 3.3 Degradation of Chloroplastic Protein.- 4 Yeast.- 4.1 Proteolysis in Bakers' Yeast.- 4.2 The Proteolytic System of Yeast.- 4.3 Compartmentation of Proteolysis.- 5 Concepts of Protein Degradation.- References.- 6 Physiological Aspects of Protein Turnover.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Measurement of Protein Turnover.- 2.1 The Measurement of Gross Protein Synthesis.- 2.2 The Measurement of Protein Degradation.- 2.2.1 Density Labelling.- 2.2.2 The Use of Tritiated Water (3H2O).- 2.2.3 The Double Isotope Method for Measuring Relative Rates of Protein Degradation.- 3 The Contribution of Protein Turnover to Respiration.- 4 Protein Turnover During Seed Germination.- 4.1 Protein Degradation.- 4.1.1 Proteinase Inhibitors.- 4.1.2 Activation of Zymogens.- 4.1.3 De Novo Synthesis of Endopeptidases.- 4.2 Protein Synthesis.- 5 Protein Turnover During Active Growth.- 6 The Measurement of Enzyme Turnover.- 6.1 Determination of the Rate Constant of Degradation from Changes in Enzyme Activity.- 6.2 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Density Labelling.- 6.3 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Immunology.- 7 Protein Turnover During Senescence.- 7.1 Protein Synthesis in Senescing Leaves.- 7.2 Protein Synthesis in Ripening Fruit.- 7.3 Protein Degradation During Senescence.- 8 The Specificity of Protein Degradation.- 8.1 Correlation with Size.- 8.2 Correlation with Charge.- 8.3 Correlation with "Abnormality".- 8.4 Correlation with Amide Concentration.- 8.5 Correlation with Disulphide Content.- 8.6 Correlation with Thermodynamic Properties.- 8.7 Correlation with Glycosylation.- 8.8 Correlation with Hydrophobicity.- 8.9 Interdependence or Independence of Correlates.- 9 Protein Degradation Under Stress.- References.- 7 Structures of Plant Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Enzymes.- 2.1 Ribulose 1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase.- 2.2 Proteases.- 2.3 Peroxidase.- 2.4 ATP Synthase.- 2.5 Phosphorylase.- 2.6 Glycolate Oxidase.- 3 Electron Transfer Proteins.- 3.1 Cytochrome c.- 3.2 Cytochrome c6.- 3.3 Ferredoxin.- 3.4 Plastocyanin.- 3.5 Stellacyanin.- 4 Toxic Proteins.- 4.1 Phytohaemagglutinins (Lectins).- 4.1.1 Concanavalin A.- 4.1.2 Favin and Related Lectins.- 4.1.3 Wheat Germ Agglutinin.- 4.1.4 Lectins from Ricinus communis.- 4.2 Protease Inhibitors.- 4.2.1 Protease Inhibitors from the Leguminosae.- 4.2.2 Protease Inhibitors from the Solanaceae.- 4.2.3 Protease Inhibitors from Other Sources.- 4.3 Other Toxic Proteins.- 4.3.1 Visco toxin.- 4.3.2 Purothionins.- 5 Other Plant Proteins.- 5.1 Seed Storage Proteins.- 5.2 Histones.- 5.3 Leghaemoglobin.- 5.4 Sweet Proteins.- 5.5 Pollen Allergens.- 5.6 Other Proteins and Recent Studies.- References.- 8 Protein Types and Distribution.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Protein Types with Regard to Their Chemistry, Physiology, Histology and Ontogeny.- 2.1 Chemical Types.- 2.1.1 Holoproteins.- 2.1.2 Conjugated Proteins.- 2.1.3 Protein Solubility.- 2.1.4 Protein Stability to Heat and Cold.- 2.2 Metabolic and Structural Proteins.- 3 Storage Proteins of Mature Seeds: Nature, Function and Ultrastructural Localization.- 3.1 Storage Proteins in Legume Seeds.- 3.1.1 Globulins.- 3.1.2 Nutritive Value of Leguminosae.- 3.1.3 Taxonomic Applications of Protein Structure Comparisons.- 3.2 Storage Proteins of Seeds with Endosperm: Cereals.- 3.3 Cellular Localization of Storage Proteins in Seeds.- 3.3.1 Protein Bodies in Seeds Without Endosperm (Legumes and Other Classes).- 3.3.2 Protein Bodies in Seeds with Endosperm: Cereal Grains and Ricinus communis Seeds.- 3.3.3 The Membranes Surrounding Protein Bodies.- 3.4 Albumins.- 4 Distribution of Enzymes.- 4.1 Definition, Nomenclature.- 4.2 Cellular Localization of Enzymes.- 4.3 Multimolecular Forms of Enzymes: Isoenzymes.- 4.3.1 Isoenzymes in Relation to Subcellular Structure.- 4.3.2 Isoenzymes in Relation to Tissue Localization and to Ontogeny.- 4.3.3 Isoenzymes in Relation to Environment: Biological Significance.- 4.3.4 Isoenzymes in Relation to Taxonomy.- 5 Distribution of Protease Inhibitors in Plants.- 6 Lectins: Nature and Distribution.- 6.1 Occurrence in Plants and Definition.- 6.2 Structure.- 6.3 Glycoprotein Nature, Glycosylation Site, Lectin-Protein Linkages.- 6.4 Different Types of Lectins.- 6.4.1 Agglutinins.- 6.4.2 Mitogenic Lectisn.- 6.4.3 Lectins as Enzymes.- 6.4.4 Lectins as Toxins: Ricin and Abrin.- 6.4.5 ?-Lectins.- 6.5 Lectin Distribution.- 6.5.1 Detection.- 6.5.2 Distribution of Lectins in Different Tissues During Development.- 6.5.3 Subcellular Distribution.- 6.5.4 Taxonomical Distribution.- 6.5.5 Possible Roles for the Lectins.- 7 Tuber Proteins.- 7.1 Tubers of Leguminosae.- 7.2 Solanum tuberosum Tubers.- 7.3 Ipomoea batatas Tubers.- 7.4 Dioscorea spp. Tubers.- 7.5 Manihot esculenta Tubers.- 7.6 Colocasia esculenta, Xanthosoma sagittifolium, Canna edulis, Maranta arundinacea Tubers.- 8 Proteins in Specialized Structures.- 8.1 Cell Wall Proteins.- 8.1.1 Extensin.- 8.1.2 Enzymes.- 8.2 Pollen Proteins.- 8.2.1 Intine Proteins.- 8.2.2 Exine Proteins.- 8.2.3 Nutritional Value of Pollen.- References.- 9 Cereal Storage Proteins: Structure and Role in Agriculture and Food Technology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Anatomical Structure of the Cereal Grain
- Protein Content and Protein Distribution.- 3 Classification of the Cereal Proteins.- 4 The Protein Constituents.- 4.1 Albumin and Globulin.- 4.2 Prolamin.- 4.3 Glutelin.- 5 Agricultural Aspects.- 5.1 Breeding High-Protein Wheats.- 5.2 High-Lysine Barley.- 5.3 High-Lysine Maize.- 5.4 Protein Improvement in Rice.- 5.5 High-Lysine Sorghum.- 5.6 Triticale.- 6 Technological Aspects.- 6.1 Milling Quality of Wheats.- 6.2 Bread.- 6.3 Biscuits (Cookies).- 6.4 Pasta Products (Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli and Noodles).- 6.5 Breakfast Cereals from Wheat.- 6.6 Chapatis.- 6.7 Use of Zein Films.- 6.8 Identification of Cereal Varieties.- References.- 10 Biochemistry and Physiology of Leaf Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (RuBPCase).- 3 Proteinase Inhibitors.- 4 Nitrate Reductase (NR).- 5 Nitrite Reductase (NiR).- 6 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL).- References.- 11 Microtubule Proteins and P-Proteins.- 1 General Introduction.- 2 Tubulin and Associated Proteins.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Tubulin.- 2.2.1 Methodology.- 2.2.2 Distribution.- 2.2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties.- 2.3 Proteins Associated with Tubulin.- 2.3.1 Introduction.- 2.3.2 Proteins Involved in Assembly.- 2.3.3 Enzymes Associated with Tubulin.- 2.4 Tubulin Assembly.- 2.4.1 Introduction.- 2.4.2 In Vitro Studies.- 2.4.3 In Vivo Assembly.- 2.5 Plant Tubulin: Special Considerations.- 2.6 Conclusions.- 3 P-Proteins.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Distribution.- 3.3 Ultrastructural Studies.- 3.3.1 Morphology.- 3.3.2 Ontogeny.- 3.3.3 Histochemistry.- 3.4 Biochemical Studies.- 3.4.1 Methodology.- 3.4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties.- 3.4.3 Lectin Activity.- 3.5 Role of P-Proteins: Hypotheses.- 4 General Conclusions.- References.- 12 Plant Peptides.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Peptides with a Specific Structure or Function.- 2.1 Glutathione.- 2.2 ?-Glutamyl Peptides.- 2.3 Algal Peptides.- 2.4 Peptides in the Phloem and Xylem.- 2.5 Symbiosis.- 2.6 Peptide Hormones.- 2.7 Peptides and Plant Pathology.- 2.8 Miscellaneous Peptides.- 3 Peptides as Metabolic Intermediates: The Peptide Pool.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Tissues of Rapid Protein Synthesis.- 3.3 Mature Tissues.- 3.4 Tissues Showing Rapid Protein Hydrolysis.- 4 Peptide Transport.- 4.1 Algae.- 4.2 Higher Plants.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 13 Immunology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Immunology of Soluble Enzymes.- 3 Immunology of Biologically Active Proteins Other than Enzymes.- 3.1 Lectins (Phytohaemagglutinins).- 3.2 Protease Inhibitors.- 3.3 Phytochrome.- 3.4 Leghaemoglobin.- 3.5 Proteins Related to Incompatibility Reactions.- 3.6 Proteins of Unknown Nature Associated with Development in Plant.- 4 Immunology of Storage Proteins.- 4.1 Storage Proteins of Legume Seeds.- 4.2 Storage Proteins of Cereal Grains.- 4.3 Storage Proteins of Other Crops.- 5 Immunological Properties of Integral Proteins of Sub-Cellular Structures.- 6 Concluding Remarks.- References.- II. Nucleic Acids and Proteins in Relation to Specific Plant Physiological Processes.- 14 Seed Development.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Changes in Structure and Composition of Seeds During Development.- 2.1 Embryogenesis and Seed Growth.- 2.2 General Compositional Changes During Seed Development.- 2.2.1 DNA.- 2.2.2 RNA.- 2.2.3 Total Nitrogen.- 2.2.4 Soluble Nitrogen.- 2.2.5 Protein Nitrogen.- 2.3 Changes in Cell Structure.- 2.3.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Dictyosomes.- 2.3.2 Vacuoles.- 2.3.3 Protein Bodies.- 2.3.4 Stereological Analysis of Cell Structures During Storage Tissue Development.- 3 Nucleic Acids.- 3.1 DNA Metabolism.- 3.2 Protein Genes and Their Inheritance in Seeds.- 3.3 RNA Metabolism.- 3.3.1 RNA Polymerase Activity.- 3.3.2 Metabolism of Different Types of RNA in Developing Seeds.- 3.3.3 Poly(A)+-RNA from Developing Seeds.- 3.3.4 cDNA Complementary to Poly (A)+-RNA from Seeds and the Molecular Cloning of DNA.- 3.3.5 tRNA and the Biosynthesis of Storage Proteins During Seed Development.- 4 Ribosomes and Polysomes.- 5 Protein Synthesis During Seed Development and Its Regulation.- 5.1 Pattern of in Vivo Protein Formation.- 5.1.1 Albumins and Globulins from Cereals and Legumes.- 5.1.2 Prolamins and Glutelins from Cereal Grains.- 5.2 In Vitro Biosynthesis of Seed Proteins - a Tool to Investigate Regulatory Processes of Storage Protein Formation.- 5.2.1 Cereal Prolamins.- 5.2.2 Intracellular Site of Storage Protein Formation.- 5.2.3 Legume Globulins.- 5.2.4 Changes in Storage Protein mRNA's and Plant Development.- 3 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases.- 3.1 Preparation, Fractionation and Purification of the Enzymes.- 3.2 Intracellular Localization and Enzyme Heterogeneity.- 3.3 Functional and Molecular Properties.- 3.3.1 Assays of Activity.- 3.3.2 Kinetic Parameters.- 3.3.3 Molecular Structure and Stability.- 3.4 Substrate Specificities.- 3.4.1 Transfer RNA.- 3.4.2 Amino Acids.- 3.4.3 ATP.- 3.5 Biosynthesis of Synthetases.- 3.6 Synthetases and Developmental Processes.- References.- 3 Ribosomes, Polysomes and the Translation Process.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribosomes.- 3 Translation.- 4 The Genetic Code and Messenger RNA.- 5 Synthesis of Aminoacyl-tRNA.- 6 Synthesis of the Protein Chain.- 6.1 Initiation.- 6.2 Elongation.- 6.3 Termination.- 7 Regulation of Protein Synthesis.- 8 Epilogue.- References.- 4 Post-Translational Modifications.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Cleavage of N-Terminal Amino Acids.- 3 Secondary and Tertiary Structure.- 3.1 Quaternary Structure.- 4 Modification of Protein Amino Acids.- 4.1 Methylation.- 4.2 Phosphorylation.- 4.3 ADP-Ribosylation.- 4.4 Hydroxylation.- 4.5 Acetylation.- 4.6 Non-Protein Amino Acids.- 5 Conjugated Proteins.- 5.1 Haemoproteins.- 5.2 Porphyroproteins.- 5.3 Flavoproteins.- 5.4 Metalloproteins.- 6 Metalloenzymes.- 7 Glycoproteins.- 7.1 O-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.1.1 Arabinogalactan-Proteins.- 7.2 Yeast Mannan.- 7.3 N-Glycosidic Linkages.- 7.4 Miscellaneous Glycoproteins.- 7.5 Formation of the O-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 7.6 Formation of N-Glycopeptide Bonds.- 8 Compartmentalization and Organelle Biogenesis.- 8.1 Mitochondria.- 8.2 Chloroplasts.- 8.3 Glyoxysomes.- 8.4 Protein Bodies - Cereal Endosperm.- 8.4.1 Protein Bodies - Legume Seeds.- 8.5 Vacuolar Proteins.- 8.6 Secreted Proteins.- 9 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Protein Degradation.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Proteolysis in Germinating Seeds.- 2.1 The Role of Protein Bodies.- 2.2 Localization of Proteases in Protein Bodies.- 2.3 Regulation of Proteolysis in Protein Bodies.- 2.4 Autophagic Function of Protein Bodies.- 3 Protein Degradation in Leaves.- 3.1 Leaf Proteases.- 3.2 Proteases and the Degradation of Leaf Protein.- 3.3 Degradation of Chloroplastic Protein.- 4 Yeast.- 4.1 Proteolysis in Bakers' Yeast.- 4.2 The Proteolytic System of Yeast.- 4.3 Compartmentation of Proteolysis.- 5 Concepts of Protein Degradation.- References.- 6 Physiological Aspects of Protein Turnover.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Measurement of Protein Turnover.- 2.1 The Measurement of Gross Protein Synthesis.- 2.2 The Measurement of Protein Degradation.- 2.2.1 Density Labelling.- 2.2.2 The Use of Tritiated Water (3H2O).- 2.2.3 The Double Isotope Method for Measuring Relative Rates of Protein Degradation.- 3 The Contribution of Protein Turnover to Respiration.- 4 Protein Turnover During Seed Germination.- 4.1 Protein Degradation.- 4.1.1 Proteinase Inhibitors.- 4.1.2 Activation of Zymogens.- 4.1.3 De Novo Synthesis of Endopeptidases.- 4.2 Protein Synthesis.- 5 Protein Turnover During Active Growth.- 6 The Measurement of Enzyme Turnover.- 6.1 Determination of the Rate Constant of Degradation from Changes in Enzyme Activity.- 6.2 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Density Labelling.- 6.3 Determination of the Rate of Enzyme Degradation by Immunology.- 7 Protein Turnover During Senescence.- 7.1 Protein Synthesis in Senescing Leaves.- 7.2 Protein Synthesis in Ripening Fruit.- 7.3 Protein Degradation During Senescence.- 8 The Specificity of Protein Degradation.- 8.1 Correlation with Size.- 8.2 Correlation with Charge.- 8.3 Correlation with "Abnormality".- 8.4 Correlation with Amide Concentration.- 8.5 Correlation with Disulphide Content.- 8.6 Correlation with Thermodynamic Properties.- 8.7 Correlation with Glycosylation.- 8.8 Correlation with Hydrophobicity.- 8.9 Interdependence or Independence of Correlates.- 9 Protein Degradation Under Stress.- References.- 7 Structures of Plant Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Enzymes.- 2.1 Ribulose 1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase.- 2.2 Proteases.- 2.3 Peroxidase.- 2.4 ATP Synthase.- 2.5 Phosphorylase.- 2.6 Glycolate Oxidase.- 3 Electron Transfer Proteins.- 3.1 Cytochrome c.- 3.2 Cytochrome c6.- 3.3 Ferredoxin.- 3.4 Plastocyanin.- 3.5 Stellacyanin.- 4 Toxic Proteins.- 4.1 Phytohaemagglutinins (Lectins).- 4.1.1 Concanavalin A.- 4.1.2 Favin and Related Lectins.- 4.1.3 Wheat Germ Agglutinin.- 4.1.4 Lectins from Ricinus communis.- 4.2 Protease Inhibitors.- 4.2.1 Protease Inhibitors from the Leguminosae.- 4.2.2 Protease Inhibitors from the Solanaceae.- 4.2.3 Protease Inhibitors from Other Sources.- 4.3 Other Toxic Proteins.- 4.3.1 Visco toxin.- 4.3.2 Purothionins.- 5 Other Plant Proteins.- 5.1 Seed Storage Proteins.- 5.2 Histones.- 5.3 Leghaemoglobin.- 5.4 Sweet Proteins.- 5.5 Pollen Allergens.- 5.6 Other Proteins and Recent Studies.- References.- 8 Protein Types and Distribution.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Protein Types with Regard to Their Chemistry, Physiology, Histology and Ontogeny.- 2.1 Chemical Types.- 2.1.1 Holoproteins.- 2.1.2 Conjugated Proteins.- 2.1.3 Protein Solubility.- 2.1.4 Protein Stability to Heat and Cold.- 2.2 Metabolic and Structural Proteins.- 3 Storage Proteins of Mature Seeds: Nature, Function and Ultrastructural Localization.- 3.1 Storage Proteins in Legume Seeds.- 3.1.1 Globulins.- 3.1.2 Nutritive Value of Leguminosae.- 3.1.3 Taxonomic Applications of Protein Structure Comparisons.- 3.2 Storage Proteins of Seeds with Endosperm: Cereals.- 3.3 Cellular Localization of Storage Proteins in Seeds.- 3.3.1 Protein Bodies in Seeds Without Endosperm (Legumes and Other Classes).- 3.3.2 Protein Bodies in Seeds with Endosperm: Cereal Grains and Ricinus communis Seeds.- 3.3.3 The Membranes Surrounding Protein Bodies.- 3.4 Albumins.- 4 Distribution of Enzymes.- 4.1 Definition, Nomenclature.- 4.2 Cellular Localization of Enzymes.- 4.3 Multimolecular Forms of Enzymes: Isoenzymes.- 4.3.1 Isoenzymes in Relation to Subcellular Structure.- 4.3.2 Isoenzymes in Relation to Tissue Localization and to Ontogeny.- 4.3.3 Isoenzymes in Relation to Environment: Biological Significance.- 4.3.4 Isoenzymes in Relation to Taxonomy.- 5 Distribution of Protease Inhibitors in Plants.- 6 Lectins: Nature and Distribution.- 6.1 Occurrence in Plants and Definition.- 6.2 Structure.- 6.3 Glycoprotein Nature, Glycosylation Site, Lectin-Protein Linkages.- 6.4 Different Types of Lectins.- 6.4.1 Agglutinins.- 6.4.2 Mitogenic Lectisn.- 6.4.3 Lectins as Enzymes.- 6.4.4 Lectins as Toxins: Ricin and Abrin.- 6.4.5 ?-Lectins.- 6.5 Lectin Distribution.- 6.5.1 Detection.- 6.5.2 Distribution of Lectins in Different Tissues During Development.- 6.5.3 Subcellular Distribution.- 6.5.4 Taxonomical Distribution.- 6.5.5 Possible Roles for the Lectins.- 7 Tuber Proteins.- 7.1 Tubers of Leguminosae.- 7.2 Solanum tuberosum Tubers.- 7.3 Ipomoea batatas Tubers.- 7.4 Dioscorea spp. Tubers.- 7.5 Manihot esculenta Tubers.- 7.6 Colocasia esculenta, Xanthosoma sagittifolium, Canna edulis, Maranta arundinacea Tubers.- 8 Proteins in Specialized Structures.- 8.1 Cell Wall Proteins.- 8.1.1 Extensin.- 8.1.2 Enzymes.- 8.2 Pollen Proteins.- 8.2.1 Intine Proteins.- 8.2.2 Exine Proteins.- 8.2.3 Nutritional Value of Pollen.- References.- 9 Cereal Storage Proteins: Structure and Role in Agriculture and Food Technology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Anatomical Structure of the Cereal Grain
- Protein Content and Protein Distribution.- 3 Classification of the Cereal Proteins.- 4 The Protein Constituents.- 4.1 Albumin and Globulin.- 4.2 Prolamin.- 4.3 Glutelin.- 5 Agricultural Aspects.- 5.1 Breeding High-Protein Wheats.- 5.2 High-Lysine Barley.- 5.3 High-Lysine Maize.- 5.4 Protein Improvement in Rice.- 5.5 High-Lysine Sorghum.- 5.6 Triticale.- 6 Technological Aspects.- 6.1 Milling Quality of Wheats.- 6.2 Bread.- 6.3 Biscuits (Cookies).- 6.4 Pasta Products (Macaroni, Spaghetti, Vermicelli and Noodles).- 6.5 Breakfast Cereals from Wheat.- 6.6 Chapatis.- 6.7 Use of Zein Films.- 6.8 Identification of Cereal Varieties.- References.- 10 Biochemistry and Physiology of Leaf Proteins.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (RuBPCase).- 3 Proteinase Inhibitors.- 4 Nitrate Reductase (NR).- 5 Nitrite Reductase (NiR).- 6 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL).- References.- 11 Microtubule Proteins and P-Proteins.- 1 General Introduction.- 2 Tubulin and Associated Proteins.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Tubulin.- 2.2.1 Methodology.- 2.2.2 Distribution.- 2.2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties.- 2.3 Proteins Associated with Tubulin.- 2.3.1 Introduction.- 2.3.2 Proteins Involved in Assembly.- 2.3.3 Enzymes Associated with Tubulin.- 2.4 Tubulin Assembly.- 2.4.1 Introduction.- 2.4.2 In Vitro Studies.- 2.4.3 In Vivo Assembly.- 2.5 Plant Tubulin: Special Considerations.- 2.6 Conclusions.- 3 P-Proteins.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Distribution.- 3.3 Ultrastructural Studies.- 3.3.1 Morphology.- 3.3.2 Ontogeny.- 3.3.3 Histochemistry.- 3.4 Biochemical Studies.- 3.4.1 Methodology.- 3.4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties.- 3.4.3 Lectin Activity.- 3.5 Role of P-Proteins: Hypotheses.- 4 General Conclusions.- References.- 12 Plant Peptides.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Peptides with a Specific Structure or Function.- 2.1 Glutathione.- 2.2 ?-Glutamyl Peptides.- 2.3 Algal Peptides.- 2.4 Peptides in the Phloem and Xylem.- 2.5 Symbiosis.- 2.6 Peptide Hormones.- 2.7 Peptides and Plant Pathology.- 2.8 Miscellaneous Peptides.- 3 Peptides as Metabolic Intermediates: The Peptide Pool.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Tissues of Rapid Protein Synthesis.- 3.3 Mature Tissues.- 3.4 Tissues Showing Rapid Protein Hydrolysis.- 4 Peptide Transport.- 4.1 Algae.- 4.2 Higher Plants.- 5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 13 Immunology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Immunology of Soluble Enzymes.- 3 Immunology of Biologically Active Proteins Other than Enzymes.- 3.1 Lectins (Phytohaemagglutinins).- 3.2 Protease Inhibitors.- 3.3 Phytochrome.- 3.4 Leghaemoglobin.- 3.5 Proteins Related to Incompatibility Reactions.- 3.6 Proteins of Unknown Nature Associated with Development in Plant.- 4 Immunology of Storage Proteins.- 4.1 Storage Proteins of Legume Seeds.- 4.2 Storage Proteins of Cereal Grains.- 4.3 Storage Proteins of Other Crops.- 5 Immunological Properties of Integral Proteins of Sub-Cellular Structures.- 6 Concluding Remarks.- References.- II. Nucleic Acids and Proteins in Relation to Specific Plant Physiological Processes.- 14 Seed Development.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Changes in Structure and Composition of Seeds During Development.- 2.1 Embryogenesis and Seed Growth.- 2.2 General Compositional Changes During Seed Development.- 2.2.1 DNA.- 2.2.2 RNA.- 2.2.3 Total Nitrogen.- 2.2.4 Soluble Nitrogen.- 2.2.5 Protein Nitrogen.- 2.3 Changes in Cell Structure.- 2.3.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Dictyosomes.- 2.3.2 Vacuoles.- 2.3.3 Protein Bodies.- 2.3.4 Stereological Analysis of Cell Structures During Storage Tissue Development.- 3 Nucleic Acids.- 3.1 DNA Metabolism.- 3.2 Protein Genes and Their Inheritance in Seeds.- 3.3 RNA Metabolism.- 3.3.1 RNA Polymerase Activity.- 3.3.2 Metabolism of Different Types of RNA in Developing Seeds.- 3.3.3 Poly(A)+-RNA from Developing Seeds.- 3.3.4 cDNA Complementary to Poly (A)+-RNA from Seeds and the Molecular Cloning of DNA.- 3.3.5 tRNA and the Biosynthesis of Storage Proteins During Seed Development.- 4 Ribosomes and Polysomes.- 5 Protein Synthesis During Seed Development and Its Regulation.- 5.1 Pattern of in Vivo Protein Formation.- 5.1.1 Albumins and Globulins from Cereals and Legumes.- 5.1.2 Prolamins and Glutelins from Cereal Grains.- 5.2 In Vitro Biosynthesis of Seed Proteins - a Tool to Investigate Regulatory Processes of Storage Protein Formation.- 5.2.1 Cereal Prolamins.- 5.2.2 Intracellular Site of Storage Protein Formation.- 5.2.3 Legume Globulins.- 5.2.4 Changes in Storage Protein mRNA's During Seed Development.- 5.3 Glycosylation of Storage Proteins During Seed Development.- 6 Protein Body Formation.- 7 The Influence of Environmental Factors on Protein Synthesis and Accumulation During Seed Development.- References.- 15 Protein and Nucleic Acid Synthesis During Seed Germination and Early Seedling Growth.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Protein Synthesis in Imbibing Embryos and Axes.- 2.1 Messenger RNA: Conserved, Synthesized, or Both?.- 3 RNA Synthesis in Imbibing Embryos and Axes.- 3.1 Ribosomal RNA.- 3.2 Transfer RNA Synthesis.- 3.3 The Sequence of RNA Synthesis During Germination.- 3.4 Enzymes and Precursors of RNA Synthesis.- 4 Protein and RNA Synthesis in Storage Organs.- 4.1 General RNA Metabolism.- 4.2 Synthesis of Enzymes Involved in Reserve Mobilization in Relation to Their mRNA's.- 4.2.1 ?-Amylase Synthesis in the Barley Aleurone Layer.- 4.2.2 Castor Bean Endosperm and Cucumber Cotyledons.- 4.2.3 Cotton Seed Cotyledons: The Carboxypeptidase Message.- 5 Protein and RNA Synthesis in Relation to Dormancy Breaking.- 5.1 Dormancy Breaking by Hormones and Light.- References.- 16 Leaf Senescence.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Senescence as a Developmental Event.- 2.1 Changes in Photosynthetic Capacity.- 2.2 The Disassembly Processes.- 2.2.1 Changes in Stroma and Thylakoid Functions.- 2.2.2 Changes in the Chloroplast Envelope.- 2.2.3 Extraplastidic Changes.- 2.2.4 Changes in Respiration and Energy Supply.- 2.3 The Senescent Leaf as a Source of Mineral Elements.- 2.3.1 Mobilization of Nitrogen.- 2.3.2 Proteolysis.- 2.3.3 Metabolism and Loading.- 2.4 Characteristics of the Senescence Switch.- 2.4.1 Senescence is Genetically Programmed.- 2.4.2 Activity of the Chloroplast Genome.- 2.4.3 Requirement for Cytoplasmic Protein Synthesis.- 2.4.4 Transcription.- 2.4.5 Reversibility of Senescence.- 3 Senescence as a Growth Correlation.- 3.1 Correlative Regulation of Senescence.- 3.1.1 Competition Between Organs.- 3.1.2 Space.- 3.1.3 Light.- 3.1.4 Nutrients.- 3.2 The Role of Growth Regulators.- 3.2.1 Cytokinins.- 3.2.2 Gibberellins, Growth Retardants and Auxins.- 3.2.3 Abscisic Acid.- 3.2.4 Ethylene.- 3.2.5 Other Compounds.- 4 Senescence as an Adaptation.- 4.1 Senescence and the Plant Life Cycle.- 4.2 Survival of the Individual.- 4.2.1 Tactical Senescence.- 4.2.2 Strategic Senescence.- 4.3 Senescence and Survival of the Population.- 4.3.1 Monocarpic Senescence.- 4.3.2 Turnover.- 4.4 Senescence and Crop Yield.- 4.4.1 Objectives in Crop Improvement.- 4.4.2 Soyabeans.- 4.4.3 Wheat.- 4.4.4 Grasses.- References.- 17 Macromolecular Aspects of Cell Wall Differentiation.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Control of Enzyme Activity.- 1.2 The Cell Wall.- 2 The Enzyme Systems.- 2.1 Pectin Polysaccharides.- 2.2 Hemicellulose.- 2.3 Cellulose.- 2.4 Lignin.- 3 Site of Synthesis, Transport and Organization of Material During Differentiation.- 3.1 Polysaccharide Synthesis and Movement.- 3.1.1 Sites of Synthesis of Pectin and Hemicelluloses.- 3.1.2 Changes in the Products Synthesized by the Membrane System During Differentiation.- 3.1.3 Movement of Vesicles During Secondary Thickening.- 3.1.4 Formation of Cell Plate and Orientation of Cell Division.- 3.1.5 Microfibrillar Deposition.- 3.2 Lignification.- 4 Possible Control Signals for the Changes in Cell Wall Synthesis.- 4.1 Signals at the Cell Surface.- 4.2 Plant Growth Hormones as Signals.- References.- Author Index.- Plant Name Index.
by "Nielsen BookData"