Stress proteins
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Bibliographic Information
Stress proteins
（Handbook of experimental pharmacology, v. 136）
Springer, 1999
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Note
Includes bibliographical references and index
Description and Table of Contents
Description
This work is concerned with a group of proteins which were originally consid ered to be an esoteric phenomenon but which have now been shown to play critical roles both in normal and stressed cells as well as being involved in a variety of human diseases. It is the purpose of this work to give a comprehen sive view of these proteins and their various aspects. After an introductory chapter providing an overview of these proteins, the work is divided into four main sections each of which deals with one important aspect of these proteins. Thus, the first section contains a series of chapters which describe individual stress proteins and their roles in particular biological phenomena. Evidently, the induction of these proteins by elevated tempera ture or other stresses is their defining feature and the second section of this book therefore considers the regulation of stress protein gene expression both by stressful stimuli such as elevated temperature or ischaemia and by non stressful stimuli such as cytokines.
Table of Contents
1 Stress Proteins: An Overview.- A. Introduction.- B. The Stress Proteins.- C. Functions of Stress Proteins.- D. Hsp Expression and Regulation.- E. Stress Proteins and Protection.- F. Stress Proteins and Human Disease.- G. Conclusion.- 2 The Hsp90 Chaperone Family.- A. General Aspects.- B. The Early Protein Folding Complex.- C. Hsp90-Containing Multimolecular Complexes.- I. The Steroid Receptor-Associated Hsp90-Containing Intermediate Folding Complex.- II. The Steroid Receptor-Associated Hsp90-Containing Mature Folding Complex.- D. Individual Chaperone and Co-chaperone Proteins Found in Hsp90 Complexes.- I. Hsp70.- II. p48Hip.- III. p60Hop.- IV. p23.- V. Immunophilins.- VI. Other TPR-Containing Proteins.- VII. p50Cdc37.- E. Refolding of Denatured Proteins.- F. Benzoquinone Ansamycins and Nucleotide Binding to Hsp90.- G. Hsp90 Client Proteins.- I. Transcription Factors.- 1. Steroid Receptors.- 2. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor.- 3. Mutated p53.- 4. Heat Shock Factor.- II. Protein Kinases.- 1. Tyrosine Kinases.- a) The Src Family Kinases.- b) Weel Kinase.- c) Sevenless Tyrosine Kinase.- d) Receptor Tyrosine Kinases - pl85erbB2.- 2. Serine/Threonine Kinases.- a) Raf-1 Kinase.- b) Casein Kinase II.- c) Heme-Regulated eIF-2? Kinase (HRI).- d) Cdk4/Cdk6.- III. Other Proteins.- 1. Cytoskeletal Proteins.- 2. Calmodulin.- 3. ss?-Subunits of Trimeric GTP-Binding Proteins.- 4. Proteasome.- 5. Hepadnavirus Reverse Transcriptase.- 6. Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor and Retinoblastoma Protein.- H. Hsp90 and Drug Development.- I. Conclusion.- References.- 3 Heat Shock Protein 70.- A. Introduction.- B. Expression and Function of hsp70.- I. Hsp70, Transient Thermotolerance and Permanent Heat Resistance.- II. Hsp70 and Apoptosis.- III. Hsp70 Protects Cells from Oxidative Stress.- IV. Hsp70 Protects Cells from X-Ray Damage.- V. Hsp70 as Molecular Chaperone.- C. Regulation of hsp70.- I. Heat Shock Transcription Factor (HSF), the Transcriptional Regulator of hsp70.- II Signal Transduction Leading to Modulation of hsp70 Levels.- III. Negative Regulatory Effect of ERK1 on hsp70 Gene Expression.- IV. Mutational Analysis of HSF-1 Phosphorylation by ERK1 Protein Kinase.- V. Modulation of HSF-1 by Other Protein Kinases.- VI. Implication of HSF-1 Regulation by Functionally Opposing Signaling Cascades.- VII. Regulation of Heat Shock Response: Possible Involvement of Ku Autoantigen.- References.- 4 Mitochondrial Molecular Chaperones hsp60 and mhsp70: Are Their Roles Restricted to Mitochondria?.- A. Introduction.- B. Structure and function.- I. Studies with Purified Proteins.- 1. Hsp70/DnaK.- 2. Hsp60/GroEL.- II. In Vivo and Mitochondrial Systems.- C. Are hsp60 and mhsp70 Restricted to Mitochondria?.- I. Subcellular Localization: The Unexplained Findings.- II. Consideration of Possible Artifacts.- III. Possible Extramitochondrial Functions.- IV. Proposed Transport Mechanisms.- D. Hsp60 in Drug Resistance and Disease.- E. Future Prospects.- References.- 5 Role of Hsp27 and Related Proteins.- A. Introduction.- B. sHsp Genes and Control of Their Expression.- I. The Family of SHsp and the Structure of the Genes Encoding These Proteins.- II. Regulation of the Expression of sHsp Genes by Heat Shock.- III. Regulation of the Constitutive and Hormone-Dependent Expression of sHsp Genes.- IV. Tissue-Specific sHsp Expression During Development and in Adult Organisms.- V. Specific sHsp Expression During Early Differentiation.- VI. Pathological sHsp Expression and Associated Diseases.- C. Biochemical Properties of sHsp.- I. Structural Organization of sHsp.- II. Quaternary Structure of sHsp.- III. Phosphorylation of sHsp.- IV. Cellular Localization of sHsp.- D. Functions of sHsp.- I. sHsp Expression Induces Thermotolerance and Protects Cytoskeletal Architecture.- II. sHsp Act as Protein Chaperones.- III. sHsp Protection Against TNF and Oxidative Stress Inducers.- IV. sHsp Expression Protects Against Apoptosis.- 1. sHsp Interfere with In Vitro-Mediated Apoptosis.- 2. sHsp as Essential Anti-apoptotic Proteins During Early Cell Differentiation.- 3. Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Anti-apoptotic Function of sHsp.- E. Conclusions.- References.- 6 Ubiquitin and the Stress Response.- A. Introduction.- B. The Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway.- C. The Ubiquitin Pathway and the Stress Response.- I. Stress Proteins in the Ubiquitin Pathway.- 1. Ubiquitin.- 2. Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes.- 3. Other Pathway Components.- II. Ubiquitin Conjugation in Stressed Cells.- III. Ubiquitin-Mediated Degradation in Stressed Cells.- IV. The Ubiquitin Pathway and Induction of the Stress Response.- V. Involvement of Molecular Chaperones in Ubiquitin-Dependent Degradation.- D. Outstanding Questions.- References.- 7 Regulation of Heat Shock Genes by Cytokines.- A. Introduction.- B. Cytokines.- C. Transcription Factors Activated by the IL-6 Receptor Family.- I. C/EBPs.- II. STATs.- D. Role of Interleukin-6 Family of Cytokines in Regulating Hsps.- E. Role of IFN-? in Regulating Hsp Expression.- F. Elevation of C/EBPs and STATs and Hsps Expression During Inflammatory Pathological States.- G. Role of IL-6 and Hsps in SLE.- H. Conclusion.- References.- 8 Regulation of Heat Shock Genes by Ischemia.- A. Introduction.- B. Patterns of Heat Shock Gene Expression After Global and Focal Ischemia.- I. Gene Expression and Neuronal Vulnerability After Global Ischemia.- II. Gene Expression After Focal Ischemia.- III. Cryptic hsp72 Expression After Ischemia.- C. Regulation of the Postischemic Heat Shock Response.- I. Injury Thresholds and the Stress Response.- 1. Thresholds for Expression of hsp72 and Other Ischemia-Inducible Genes.- 2. Temperature Effects on hsp72 Expression After Global Ischemia.- II. Heat Shock Factor Activation After Global Ischemia.- III. Heat Shock Regulation After Anoxia/Aglycemia in Hippocampal Slices.- 1. Hsp72 Induction After In Vitro Anoxia/Aglycemia.- 2. Pharmacological Manipulation of hsp72 Expression.- D. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 9 Regulation of Heat Shock Transcription Factors by Hypoxia or Ischemia/Reperfusion in the Heart and Brain.- A. Introduction.- B. Regulation of Heat Shock Gene Transcription.- I. Family of Heat Shock Factors.- II. Regulation of DNA-Binding Activity of HSF1.- C. Damage by Ischemia and Reperfusion.- I. Ischemia.- II. Reperfusion.- D. Regulation of Hsps by Ischemia/Reperfusion in the Brain and Heart.- I. Induction of Hsps by Ischemia/Reperfusion in the Brain.- II. Induction of Hsps by Ischemia/Reperfusion in the Heart.- E. Regulation of HSF Activation by Hypoxia or Ischemia/Reperfusion.- I. HSF Activation by Hypoxia.- II. HSF Activation by Ischemia in the Brain.- III. HSF Activation by Ischemia/Reperfusion in the Heart.- IV. HSF Activation by Ischemia/Reperfusion in Other Tissues.- F. Ischemic Tolerance by Hsps in the Brain and Heart.- I. Ischemic Tolerance by Hsps in the Brain.- II. Myocardial Protection Against Ischemia by Hsps.- G. Mechanisms of HSF Activation by Hypoxia or Ischemia/Reperfusion.- I. Specific Activation of HSF1 by Hypoxia or Ischemia/Reperfusion.- II. Signals for the Activation of HSF1 by Hypoxia or Ischemia/Reperfusion.- 1. ATP Depletion.- 2. Reactive Oxygen Species.- 3. Arachidonic Acid and Its Metabolites.- 4. Decreased Intracellular pH.- H. Clinical Application and Future Perspective.- References.- 10 Autoregulation of the Heat Shock Response.- A. Introduction.- B. Regulation of the Heat Shock Response in Eukaryotes.- I. Overview.- II. Biochemical Study of Autoregulation in Higher Eukaryotes.- III. Genetic Evidence for Autoregulation of the Heat Shock Response in Yeast and Drosophila.- C. Regulation of the Heat Shock Response in Prokaryotes.- I. Overview.- II. Genetic Evidence for Autoregulation of the E. coli Heat Shock Response.- III. Biochemical Studies on Autoregulation of the E. coli Heat Shock Response.- D. Common Features of the Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Heat Shock Response.- References.- 11 The Cellular Stress Gene Response in Brain.- A. Introduction.- B. Response of the Brain to Physiologically Relevant Temperature Increase.- I. Differential Induction of Heat Shock mRNA in Different Cell Types of the Hyperthermic Brain.- II. Intracellular Targeting of Neural Heat Shock mRNAs.- III. Cell Type Differences in Neural Heat Shock Proteins.- IV. Expression of Heat Shock Proteins in the Developing Brain.- V. Activation of Neural Heat Shock Transcription Factor HSF1.- VI. In Vivo Transcription Rate of Heat Shock Genes in the Brain.- VII. Neuroprotective Effect of Heat Shock Protein in the Retina.- VIII. Conclusions.- C. Cellular Stress Gene Response to Focal Cerebral Ischemia.- I. Hsp70 and Delineation of the Penumbra.- II. Hsp32 (HO-1) Spreading Depression Mediated Induction in Microglia.- III. Hsp27 Spreading Depression Mediated Induction in Astrocytes.- IV. Glucose Transporters/grp75/grp78: HIF Mediated Induction.- V. Conclusions.- D. Cellular Stress Gene Response to Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.- I. Clinical Syndrome of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and the Role of HO.- II. Induction of HO-1 Following Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.- III. Induction of HO-1 Following Subarachnoid Injections of Hemoglobin and Protoporphyrins.- IV. Model for Metabolism of Herne by Microglia, Neurons and Meningeal Cells Following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.- References.- 12 Heat Stress Proteins and Their Relationship to Myocardial Protection.- A. Introduction.- B. Heat Stress and the Stress Response.- C. Are Stress Proteins Protective?.- D. Evidence for the Ability of Stress Proteins To Protect the Cell.- I. Thermotolerance.- II. Cross-tolerance.- III. Stress Proteins and the Heart.- IV. Heat Stress and Myocardial Protection.- V. Heat Stress Proteins and Ischaemic Preconditioning.- VI. Heat Stress and Protection Against Non-ischaemic Injury.- VII. Mechanisms of Cardiac Protection by Elevated Temperature.- E. Conclusions.- References.- 13 Heat Shock Proteins in Inflammation and Immunity.- A. Introduction: Multiple Roles of Heat Shock Proteins in Inflammation and Immunity.- B. Role of Hsp Localization in the Induction of an Immune Response.- C. Hsp and Cell Adhesion in the Initiation of Inflammation.- D. Non-specific Immunity: Cells and Mediators Involved in the Induction of a Heat Shock/Stress Response.- I. Monocytes-Macrophages.- 1. Reactive Oxygen Species.- 2. Lipid Mediators of Inflammation.- 3. Cytokines.- 4. Nuclear Factor ?B (NF-?B).- II. Granulocytic Phagocytes.- 1. Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes (PMN).- 2. Eosinophils.- E. Cellular Immunity.- I. T Cells.- II. ?? T Cells.- III. Hsp, NK Cells and Cancer Immunity.- F. The Paradigm of Asthma.- G. Conclusions and Perspectives.- References.- 14 Heat Shock Proteins in Embryonic Development.- A. Introduction.- B. Specific Expression of Hsps During Drosophila Development.- C. Essential Roles of Hsps During Development.- I. Mammalian Small Hsp: A "Checkpoint" Between Proliferation, Differentiation and Cell Death.- II. Hsp90 and the Control of Muscle Cell Differentiation Through the Regulation of Myogenic Transcription Factors.- III. Hsp70-2: A Specialized Chaperone Essential for Meiosis.- D. Mechanisms Regulating the Expression of Hsps During Differentiation and Development.- E. In Search of Additional Developmental Chaperones.- F. The Place of Hsps in Aging.- G. Conclusion.- References.- 15 Heat Shock Proteins in Rheumatoid Arthritis.- A. Introduction.- B. Autoimmune Arthritis and Immunity to Bacterial Antigens.- C. Hsp60 Is the Critical Antigen in Rat Adjuvant Arthritis.- D. Nasal Tolerance to hsp Peptides Suppresses Antigen and Non-Antigen Induced Arthritis.- E. Conserved hsp60 Epitopes Induce Arthritis Suppressive T Cells.- F. Suppression in Arthritis Models Is Specific for Heat Shock Proteins.- G. Immune Mediated Diseases.- H. Rheumatoid Arthritis as a Model Autoimmune Disease.- I. Hsps in Autoimmune and Other Inflammatory Diseases.- J. Hsps in Human Arthritic Diseases.- K. Hsp60 T Cell Responses in RA and JRA Are Associated with Suppressive Cytokine Production.- L. Mechanisms by Which hsps Produce Protection in Autoimmune Arthritis.- M. Lessons for the Development of Specific Immunotherapy in Autoimmunity.- N. Conclusion.- References.- 16 Heat Shock Protein 60 and Type I Diabetes.- A. Introduction.- B. Hsp60 and Autoimmune Diseases.- C. Hsp60 Reactivity and the NOD Mouse Model of Type I Diabetes.- D. Cell Types Required for Diabetogenesis in Patients.- E. Islet Cell Antibody Responses.- F. Autoreactive T Cell Responses.- G. T Cell Clones of Unknown Antigen Specificity.- H. Evidence from Suppression of Specific T Cell Responses in NOD Mice.- I. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 17 Heat Shock Proteins and Multiple Sclerosis.- A. Introduction.- B. Hsp Expression in Inflammatory, Demyelinating Diseases of the Brain.- I. Hsp Expression in Glial Cells.- II. Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis.- III. Multiple Sclerosis.- C. Immune Response to Hsps.- I. Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis.- II. Multiple Sclerosis.- D. Other Roles of Hsps in MS.- E. Conclusions and Future Work.- References.- 18 Heat Shock Proteins in Atherosclerosis.- A. Introduction.- B. Pathogenesis of Primary Atherosclerotic Lesions.- C. Arterial Hsp Expression After Vascular Injury and During Development of Atherosclerotic Lesions.- D. Association of Hsps with Specific Stages of Atherosclerotic Lesion Development.- I. Hsps in Hypertension, a Risk Factor for Atherosclerosis.- II. Immunological Responses to Hsps in Primary Plaque Development.- 1. T-Lymphocyte Activation by Hsp60 in Atherosclerotic Vessels.- 2. Do Anti-Hsp60 Antibodies Contribute to Necrotic Core Formation?.- 3. Biphasic Effects of Hsp Expression in Organ Transplantation: Tissue Preservation Versus Graft Arteriosclerosis.- III. Hsps in the Mature Atherosclerotic Plaque.- 1. Induction of Hsp Expression by oxLDL.- 2. The Stress Response and Plaque Cell Survival Versus Necrosis.- E. Future Directions.- References.- 19 Heat Shock Protein-Peptide Interaction: Basis for a New Generation of Vaccines Against Cancers and Intracellular Infections.- A. Introduction.- B. Hsps Chaperone Antigenic Peptides.- C. Unique Advantages of Hsp-Peptide Vaccines.- D. Use of Hsp-Peptide Complexes as Cancer Vaccines.- E. Protective Human Cancer Antigens: Unique to Each Individual Cancer or Shared Between Cancers?.- F. Hsp-Peptide Complexes as Vaccines Against Intracellular Infectious Agents.- References.
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